This blog forms part of a series examining how different faith traditions embrace or reject the Divine Feminine in their teachings and representation of The Divine.
In part one, I reflect upon my own very masculine spiritual journey across Abrahamic traditions.
I look back at my childhood as a Christian and my conversion to Islam in my early 20s. I also discuss my interfaith exploration of the Jewish and Christian world as a post-Orthodox Liberal Muslim.
In part two, I explore how the Divine Feminine is viewed across the Abrahamic faiths (Judaism, Christianity and Islam).
In this blog, I look at the representation of God and the Divine Feminine amongst the Dharmic faiths (Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism and Jainism).
In part four, I highlight why the inclusion of the Divine Feminine is critically important, not simply in promoting spiritual inclusion, but embracing wider gender equality in sacred and secular spaces.
The Abrahamic faiths are renowned for being patriarchal traditions. Yet we’ve seen how the Divine Feminine can and is being embraced (to varying degrees).
And so, what about the other major world faiths?
Well, the Dharmic faiths present quite a different picture.
From actively embracing a (positive) Divine Feminine, to negative or even forgotten portrayals of the Divine Feminine – it’s definitely varied.
Take a look!
Inside the Sikh world: reclaiming the Divine Feminine
As in Islam and Judaism, Sikhism believes in God as a genderless Creator.
And again, this a Divine who is not represented through visual imagery (Sikhs have pictures of [non-divine] gurus but not statues).
However, that’s not all these three faiths share in common when it comes to representations and perceptions of The Divine.
Yes, like just as in the Abrahamic world, female scholars/theologians of Sikh heritage are also working to reclaim the Divine Feminine.
As with Judaism and Islam, God is genderless in Sikhism.
When referring to God, Sikh tradition includes references to both “masculine” and “feminine” features.
It actively embodies the notion of God as the “One Divine Mother”.
In Sikh dharma (spiritual teachings), women are viewed as “ the embodiment of the Divine Mother, the Sacred Feminine”. Beautiful!
Whilst it may be tempting to embrace this duality through the same male-female binary that feminists in the Abrahamic world are attempting to “rebalance”, it is quite different from the Sikh perspective.
How? Well, for some Sikh women embracing a less patriarchal perception of God and faith should include deconstructing this binary due to its Western influence.
However, if we look deeply at the origins of the faith, we can deconstruct scripture away from patriarchal norms:
“In my view, once an individual grasps the genuine essence of the scriptures, they can distinguish between what is advocated by their religion and what has been imposed by cultural norms.”
(Dr Charanjit Kaur, PhD thesis)
For Charanjit Kaur, a Sikh woman who has dedicated her studies to examining gender in the Sikh world, God is a genderless advocate of equality in Sikh scripture.
From an outsider lens, we appear to encounter traditionally male language, similar to Abrahamic scriptures:
“In the dwelling of the womb, there is no ancestry or social status. All have originated from the Seed of God.”
“The One God is our father; we are the children of the One God. You are our Guru.”
(Guru Granth Sahib)
However, Charanjit argues that this does not imply a superiority over the female:
“… God Himself is both male and female. While in reality, God is not born and has no gender, these verses are written in such a way to explain that whether male or female, both are equal and significant.
They also explain that the attributes possessed by men and women belong to God, making Him complete (poora) and perfect (sempooran).
Furthermore, all human beings are the children of the One God.
God is the father, mother, and the original family of humanity. The worldly life is given to reunite with the original human family, which is the One God.”
Similar to Jewish tradition, the relationship between God and humans also includes references to marriage:
“There is one Husband Lord, and all are His brides.”
“In this world and in the next, the soul-bride belongs to her Husband Lord, who has such a vast family.”
(Guru Granth Sahib)
These verses describe God as the Husband (Lord), while all humans (both male and female) are the bride (soul).
Charanjit refers to this notion of “soul bride” as the” original and superior identity for humans”.
In this image, every human being is seen as equal, regardless of their gender.
Many verses make reference to this metaphor to “emphasise the virtues of a faithful soul-bride who loves the Lord-Husband wholeheartedly”.
From an Abrahamic lens, it can be tempting to view language in Sikh scripture as overtly patriarchal with little reference to the Divine Feminine.
However, what my exploration of this topic and interaction with Charanjit has taught me is that this is not quite the case:
“Divine Feminism in Sikhism is unique. This is because God, from a feminist perspective, can be seen as the nurturing Mother who cares for the Earth and all of creation.
At the same time, the Guru Granth Sahib emphasises the spiritual aspect, which is genderless, ageless, nationless, and so on.
Therefore, the goal of Reuniting with God can be achieved by any gender by practicing soul-bride attributes.
The concept of Soul-Bride in Sikhism promotes equality and spiritual connection, emphasising that all individuals, regardless of gender, have the potential to attain a union with the Divine, Lord-Husband.
In this scripture, both men and women are seen as soul-brides eagerly awaiting the Lord-Husband…
From a spiritual perspective, gender is not important, but living by the principle of equality (for example) can help any gender ‘meet God’.”
For women in the Sikh world, Charanjit expresses how the Divine Feminine is both a way to “rebalance” patriarchal perceptions of faith and counteract cultural practices that marginalise women.
On the other hand, by over-emphasising gender (patriarchy, femininity and masculinity) – very human concepts – we risk losing the true nature of our relationship with God.
This poses a very balanced binary, with the notion of reclaiming egalitarian narratives away from patriarchal also discussed by scholars such as Nikky-Gunninder Kaur Singh.
In her work, Nikky-Gunninder is actively attempting to “reimagine the divine“, to purposely “offer a counter-balance to the prevailing androcentric attitudes and interpretations of malestream scholarship”.
It’s a shared need with Jewish and Islamic feminists: to reject patriarchal male-centric views of the Divine. And it goes beyond theology.
As Nikky-Gunninder explains, this theological shift isn’t just about how believers view God. It’s about how we treat humans – in particular women.
Her hope is by including a more feminine view of God, Sikhs will also be: “counteracting the sexism festering within Sikh homes and the larger society”.
So, in the Sikh world, we are met with a call for balance, without an overemphasis on gender.
But about the other Dharmic faiths? Well let’s find out more about Hinduism!
Hindu theology: embracing a common Divine Feminine
Looking at one of the founding faiths behind Sikhism – Hinduism – there’s a clear representation of the Divine Feminine.
In fact, in Hinduism, the Divine Feminine is central to the faith.
In the Hindu tradition, God (Braham) represents the Ultimate Reality.
Referred to using the masculine, “He” is represented through a range of avatars, including several female deities.
The Divine present is definitely celebrated (although: this doesn’t always translate to a wider socio-cultural reality):
“One of the most profound attributes of Hinduism is the recognition and worship of God as feminine.
In fact, Hinduism is the only major religion that has always worshipped God in female form and continues to do so today.
Many Hindus revere God’s energy, or Shakti, through its personification in a Goddess.
Many festivals… are wholly dedicated to Goddesses…. While social practices have not lived up the Hindu ideal of gender equality and mutual respect…”
And so, the theological inclusion of the Divine Feminine is plentiful in the Hindu faith.
Embracing goddesses such as Devi (the “all embracing Mother goddess”) and Durga, associated with protection, strength, motherhood, destruction and wars, there is a clear celebration of the Divine Feminine:
“Acknowledging the Divine Feminine is essential in Hinduism as it reflects the balance of energies in the cosmos and emphasises the reverence for all forms of life, transcending gender boundaries.
As a Hindu, I embrace the Divine Feminine through the worship of goddesses like Devi, who embodies the nurturing and creative energies of the universe.
Devi is both nurturing and fierce, embodying different aspects of femininity. Her multifaceted nature reflects the harmony of existence, from her gentle compassion to her fierce determination.
Embracing her attributes fosters a holistic understanding of existence and reminds me of the value of empathy, strength, and creation.
This reverence for the Divine Feminine influences my spiritual journey, deepening my connection to the diverse expressions of life.
It encourages me to recognise the sacredness inherent in all beings, to honour the feminine aspect within myself and all living things, contributing to a more harmonious and inclusive worldview.”
(Dr Swati Chakrabarty)
For Advaita Vedanta Hindus for example, the Divine Feminine is integral to one’s perception and understanding of God:
“The divine feminine in Hinduism is non-separate from the divine masculine – if it were, there would be no manifestation, no creation.
“What is referred to as ultimately real, Brahman, transcends all dualities including gender, as is seen in the language itself which has feminine, masculine and even neuter nouns referring to Brahman.
“Because of this, the divine feminine is depicted in the same ways as the divine masculine; from the fierce goddess Durga who pervades everything, creates, and destroys that which threatens the manifestation, to Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge, of all creative pursuits such as music, art, and literature, the divine feminine is always present.”
Hinduism without a doubt embraces the Divine Feminine. In the Hare Krisha tradition for example, Radha-Krishna represents both the masculine and feminine – a divine unity.
The combination of the Hindu God Krishna and Goddess Radha. These two gods cannot be separated – they are two halves of the same beings.
This therefore goes beyond gender (although not genderless). Here, we don’t need to balance an unequal binary, as for example in the Abrahamic world.
However, this inclusion doesn’t necessarily equate to gender inclusion across the board.
This of course represents a different kind of disparity in terms of gender – one seemingly similar, yet very different to my own experiences.
As a Muslim woman, I regularly encounter a lack of theological representation (e.g. excluding the Divine Feminine).
What’s more, I also encounter a wider exclusion (in sacred and non-sacred spaces) – lacking (adequate) physical sacred/prayer spaces and female representation both inside and outside the mosque.
Nonetheless, such feminine imagery is powerful – and, just like in Sikhism, this features in other traditions such as Jainism.
A divine binary: the masculine and feminine in Jainism
I must confess, Jainism is a faith that I don’t know much about.
However, I’ve been fortunate to learn more about it through a former Jain colleague and a later trip to Nepal in 2022 where we visited a local Jain temple.
Sharing beliefs with Hinduism and Buddhism, Jainism is quite a unique faith which places emphasis on non-violence and protecting God’s creation.
So how is The Divine represented – if it all?
Well, Jainism is transtheistic and so doesn’t present a belief in a God in the sense of a single “Creator” entity.
However, what does exist in the Jain faith is a “yaksa” – a male deity associated with a Jina (an enlightened human being) – and a yaksi (or yakshini) (his female counterpart).
This dual pair of “Gods” (spirits or “guardian deities”) act as intermediaries for worshippers and are viewed as devotes to the Jina.
Typically, a “male” yaksha is generally placed on the right-hand side of the image of a Jina, and the “female” yaksi on the left.
In Jain cosmology, yaksas are classified as Vyantaras – a form of deity which lives between the first hell and Earth. These appear in (the earlier) Hindu faith as gods and goddesses.
With both male and female icons, there is a “gender balance”. However, as a transtheistic faith, this representation has a very different meaning.
Appearing in Hindu, Jain and Buddhist texts – they however feature across traditions.
And that brings us to our last look at the Dharmic faiths: Buddhism!
Examining the divine: Buddhist portrayals of the feminine
As women of faith, we want representation and inclusion in both theology (embracing the divine feminine) and practice (building inclusive sacred spaces).
Of course, it goes without saying that we’re aiming for positive representation – not mere tokenism or negative misrepresentations.
And that’s where the Buddhist tradition comes in.
In Buddhism itself, you don’t actually need to believe in a God. You can, but it’s not a prerequisite to being Buddhist.
A Buddha is instead a human being who has achieved enlightenment and will not be reborn, as they have stepped off the Dharmachakra (wheel of dharma).
So, in a faith where there is no Divine Creator/Gods as such, can we even talk about the Divine Feminine and Masculine?
Well, in terms of portrayals of “holiness”, seeking favour (through prayer) and gender – yes. It’s just different from for example the Abrahamic view.
As a faith, Buddhism portrays both feminine and masculine views.
Buddhist practice for example actively includes the worship of Buddhas or Bodhisattvas.
These Bodhisattvas are identified as male or female and “vested with important attributes, notably transcendent wisdom and longevity”.
These are not Buddhas, as they did not reach enlightenment. Instead, they stopped just short to enable them to be born again to help people.
In the two main schools of thought, this however varies greatly.
Mahayana Buddhists (predominately based in Tibet, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, and Mongolia) worship Bodhisattvas.
However, Theravada Buddhists (based in Thailand, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Laos and Cambodia) do not.
For those who do worship these figures, they can be male or female and can also switch genders.
For example, the female Bodhisattva Guan Yin (possibly the most famous) was originally the male Avalokiteshvara.
In Tibetan Buddhism however, Tara (the “mother of liberation”) is instead a female version of the male Avalokiteshvara.
Guan Yin has been further adopted by other Eastern religions such as Chinese folk religion. In Vietnam, she is commonly referred to as Quan Âm.
For Buddhists such as Thao (from Vietnam), Buddha is masculine. Quan Âm on the other hand is female.
Quan Âm is a source of compassion and a fertility goddess.
In her practice, Thao prays to Qua Nam at home to seek peace, happiness and assistance in raising her children. And she’d do the same – even if Quan Âm were male.
When she goes to temple, Thao prays to Buddha for happiness and acceptance. Likewise, her brothers pray to both Buddha and Quan Âm.
There appears to be no gendered value. Whilst undoubtedly a mother figure, Thao also recognises that men can be compassionate too.
In the West, compassion is often seen as a feminine trait. Yet in Tibet for example, compassion is the male name for Quan Âm, comparable to perhaps the masculine yet compassionate Jesus of Christian tradition.
However, despite the apparently genderless attribution to values – it’s not that clear cut.
Representation alone isn’t enough – it’s about how the feminine is perceived:
“While central to Buddhist practices that championed what were perceived as feminine traits, the female as the focal point of eschatological rites appears to run counter to the celebration of the female or womanhood.
Earlier scholarship sought both to critique androcentric biases in gendered representations, and to argue for representations of the feminine divine as a source of empowerment for female viewers…
These differences in the ways in which gendered representation is emphasized thus depend on the ritual or meditation context… portrayals of the divine woman depict a spectrum of qualities, the female being auspicious, sexual, lively, violent, grotesque, or even putrefying.”
Janet Gyotso highlights a critical point in terms of representation. Embracing the divine feminine is about countering patriarchal narratives that exclude and devalue women.
Negative portrayals of women simply feed into such patriarchal narratives – rather than including and celebrating the feminine.
And that’s why reimagining God in a more balanced, more (positively) feminine way is critically important – across the sacred world.
Find out more about the importance of embracing the Divine Feminine in the wider context of embracing gender equality in part four!
This post was originally published on Voice of Salam.