{"id":1317789,"date":"2023-11-08T12:52:49","date_gmt":"2023-11-08T12:52:49","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/radiofree.asia\/?guid=461fed8844e852db9f32fb9400a584ce"},"modified":"2023-11-08T12:52:49","modified_gmt":"2023-11-08T12:52:49","slug":"canada-used-scientists-to-cover-up-us-korean-war-biological-weapons-usage","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/radiofree.asia\/2023\/11\/08\/canada-used-scientists-to-cover-up-us-korean-war-biological-weapons-usage\/","title":{"rendered":"Canada used scientists to cover up US\u2019 Korean War biological weapons usage"},"content":{"rendered":"<figure class=\"\n              sqs-block-image-figure\n              intrinsic\n            \"\n        ><\/p>\n<p>                  <img data-stretch=\"false\" data-image=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/3d23e286-fe7e-4f3f-ac29-24d6635e4c5e\/Picture1.png\" data-image-dimensions=\"1430x864\" data-image-focal-point=\"0.5,0.5\" alt=\"\" data-load=\"false\" src=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/3d23e286-fe7e-4f3f-ac29-24d6635e4c5e\/Picture1.png?format=1000w\" width=\"1430\" height=\"864\" sizes=\"100vw\" srcset=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/3d23e286-fe7e-4f3f-ac29-24d6635e4c5e\/Picture1.png?format=100w 100w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/3d23e286-fe7e-4f3f-ac29-24d6635e4c5e\/Picture1.png?format=300w 300w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/3d23e286-fe7e-4f3f-ac29-24d6635e4c5e\/Picture1.png?format=500w 500w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/3d23e286-fe7e-4f3f-ac29-24d6635e4c5e\/Picture1.png?format=750w 750w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/3d23e286-fe7e-4f3f-ac29-24d6635e4c5e\/Picture1.png?format=1000w 1000w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/3d23e286-fe7e-4f3f-ac29-24d6635e4c5e\/Picture1.png?format=1500w 1500w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/3d23e286-fe7e-4f3f-ac29-24d6635e4c5e\/Picture1.png?format=2500w 2500w\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" data-loader=\"sqs\"><figcaption class=\"image-caption-wrapper\">\n<p class=\"\">Reproduced from <em>The Kingston Whig-Standard<\/em>, August 5, 1952, Page&nbsp;4, via <a href=\"https:\/\/www.newspapers.com\/article\/the-kingston-whig-standard-canada-dept-o\/131047860\/\">newspapers.com<\/a><\/p>\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.thecanadafiles.com\/articles\/canada-used-scientists-to-cover-up-us-korean-war-biological-weapons-usage#\" onclick=\"doGTranslate('en|zh-CN');return false;\" title=\"Chinese (Simplified)\" class=\"gflag nturl\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/gtranslate.net\/flags\/blank.png\" height=\"24\" width=\"24\" alt=\"Chinese (Simplified)\" \/><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.thecanadafiles.com\/articles\/canada-used-scientists-to-cover-up-us-korean-war-biological-weapons-usage#\" onclick=\"doGTranslate('en|en');return false;\" title=\"English\" class=\"gflag nturl\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/gtranslate.net\/flags\/blank.png\" height=\"24\" width=\"24\" alt=\"English\" \/><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.thecanadafiles.com\/articles\/canada-used-scientists-to-cover-up-us-korean-war-biological-weapons-usage#\" onclick=\"doGTranslate('en|fr');return false;\" title=\"French\" class=\"gflag nturl\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/gtranslate.net\/flags\/blank.png\" height=\"24\" width=\"24\" alt=\"French\" \/><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.thecanadafiles.com\/articles\/canada-used-scientists-to-cover-up-us-korean-war-biological-weapons-usage#\" onclick=\"doGTranslate('en|de');return false;\" title=\"German\" class=\"gflag nturl\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/gtranslate.net\/flags\/blank.png\" height=\"24\" width=\"24\" alt=\"German\" \/><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.thecanadafiles.com\/articles\/canada-used-scientists-to-cover-up-us-korean-war-biological-weapons-usage#\" onclick=\"doGTranslate('en|it');return false;\" title=\"Italian\" class=\"gflag nturl\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/gtranslate.net\/flags\/blank.png\" height=\"24\" width=\"24\" alt=\"Italian\" \/><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.thecanadafiles.com\/articles\/canada-used-scientists-to-cover-up-us-korean-war-biological-weapons-usage#\" onclick=\"doGTranslate('en|pt');return false;\" title=\"Portuguese\" class=\"gflag nturl\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/gtranslate.net\/flags\/blank.png\" height=\"24\" width=\"24\" alt=\"Portuguese\" \/><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.thecanadafiles.com\/articles\/canada-used-scientists-to-cover-up-us-korean-war-biological-weapons-usage#\" onclick=\"doGTranslate('en|ru');return false;\" title=\"Russian\" class=\"gflag nturl\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/gtranslate.net\/flags\/blank.png\" height=\"24\" width=\"24\" alt=\"Russian\" \/><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.thecanadafiles.com\/articles\/canada-used-scientists-to-cover-up-us-korean-war-biological-weapons-usage#\" onclick=\"doGTranslate('en|es');return false;\" title=\"Spanish\" class=\"gflag nturl\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/gtranslate.net\/flags\/blank.png\" height=\"24\" width=\"24\" alt=\"Spanish\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p><select onchange=\"doGTranslate(this);\"><option value=\"\">Select Language<\/option><option value=\"en|af\">Afrikaans<\/option><option value=\"en|sq\">Albanian<\/option><option value=\"en|ar\">Arabic<\/option><option value=\"en|hy\">Armenian<\/option><option value=\"en|az\">Azerbaijani<\/option><option value=\"en|eu\">Basque<\/option><option value=\"en|be\">Belarusian<\/option><option value=\"en|bg\">Bulgarian<\/option><option value=\"en|ca\">Catalan<\/option><option value=\"en|zh-CN\">Chinese (Simplified)<\/option><option value=\"en|zh-TW\">Chinese (Traditional)<\/option><option value=\"en|hr\">Croatian<\/option><option value=\"en|cs\">Czech<\/option><option value=\"en|da\">Danish<\/option><option value=\"en|nl\">Dutch<\/option><option value=\"en|en\">English<\/option><option value=\"en|et\">Estonian<\/option><option value=\"en|tl\">Filipino<\/option><option value=\"en|fi\">Finnish<\/option><option value=\"en|fr\">French<\/option><option value=\"en|gl\">Galician<\/option><option value=\"en|ka\">Georgian<\/option><option value=\"en|de\">German<\/option><option value=\"en|el\">Greek<\/option><option value=\"en|ht\">Haitian Creole<\/option><option value=\"en|iw\">Hebrew<\/option><option value=\"en|hi\">Hindi<\/option><option value=\"en|hu\">Hungarian<\/option><option value=\"en|is\">Icelandic<\/option><option value=\"en|id\">Indonesian<\/option><option value=\"en|ga\">Irish<\/option><option value=\"en|it\">Italian<\/option><option value=\"en|ja\">Japanese<\/option><option value=\"en|ko\">Korean<\/option><option value=\"en|lv\">Latvian<\/option><option value=\"en|lt\">Lithuanian<\/option><option value=\"en|mk\">Macedonian<\/option><option value=\"en|ms\">Malay<\/option><option value=\"en|mt\">Maltese<\/option><option value=\"en|no\">Norwegian<\/option><option value=\"en|fa\">Persian<\/option><option value=\"en|pl\">Polish<\/option><option value=\"en|pt\">Portuguese<\/option><option value=\"en|ro\">Romanian<\/option><option value=\"en|ru\">Russian<\/option><option value=\"en|sr\">Serbian<\/option><option value=\"en|sk\">Slovak<\/option><option value=\"en|sl\">Slovenian<\/option><option value=\"en|es\">Spanish<\/option><option value=\"en|sw\">Swahili<\/option><option value=\"en|sv\">Swedish<\/option><option value=\"en|th\">Thai<\/option><option value=\"en|tr\">Turkish<\/option><option value=\"en|uk\">Ukrainian<\/option><option value=\"en|ur\">Urdu<\/option><option value=\"en|vi\">Vietnamese<\/option><option value=\"en|cy\">Welsh<\/option><option value=\"en|yi\">Yiddish<\/option><\/select><\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<p class=\"\">Written by: Jeffrey S. Kaye<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">An examination of declassified documents shows that the Canadian government discussed at high military levels \u201cprobable\u201d U.S. plans to launch a biological warfare (BW) campaign in 1952, presumably on the Korean peninsula. The documents also reveal that Canada\u2019s government would soon approach and assist three Canadian scientists in writing a public statement condemning those who affirmed Communist allegations of U.S. \u201cgerm warfare\u201d in Korea and China. &nbsp;<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Since 1947, Canada had been part of a secret three-way, or tripartite, agreement with the United States and the United Kingdom, coordinating research and development of both offensive and defensive capabilities in the use of bacteriological and other toxic agents.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">While a \u201cprobable\u201d biological warfare campaign plan was being developed, the Korean War was the only \u201chot\u201d conflict underway involving the United States, having begun in 1950. Canada had joined with the U.S. and thirteen other nations under the auspices of an ad hoc UN organization known as UN Command to fight the Korean People\u2019s Army and their Chinese allies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">In February 1952, both the Democratic Peoples\u2019 Republic of Korea (DPRK) and the Peoples\u2019 Republic of China (PRC) <a href=\"https:\/\/medium.com\/@jeff-kaye\/censored-north-korea-accused-u-s-of-working-with-unit-731-war-criminals-on-bw-attacks-d7fd819ed8b7\">publicly alleged<\/a> that U.S. planes were involved in hundreds of sorties, which dropped various kinds of bacteriological or \u201cgerm\u201d munitions on military and civilian targets. In particular, they accused UN forces of using insect vectors to spread disease, utilizing in part methods and personnel from Imperial Japan\u2019s World War II biological warfare program.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">The charges of the use of such \u201cgerm\u201d weapons <a href=\"https:\/\/medium.com\/@jeff-kaye\/a-real-flood-of-bacteria-and-germs-communications-intelligence-and-charges-of-u-s-4decafdc762\">were corroborated<\/a> decades later by the CIA\u2019s declassification in 2010 of highly secret U.S. communications intelligence reports documenting some of the biowarfare attacks.<\/p>\n<figure class=\"\n              sqs-block-image-figure\n              intrinsic\n            \"\n        ><\/p>\n<p>                  <img data-stretch=\"false\" data-image=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/7b72fafb-9274-45b3-b972-52f648e168dd\/Picture2.png\" data-image-dimensions=\"788x935\" data-image-focal-point=\"0.5,0.5\" alt=\"\" data-load=\"false\" src=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/7b72fafb-9274-45b3-b972-52f648e168dd\/Picture2.png?format=1000w\" width=\"788\" height=\"935\" sizes=\"100vw\" srcset=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/7b72fafb-9274-45b3-b972-52f648e168dd\/Picture2.png?format=100w 100w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/7b72fafb-9274-45b3-b972-52f648e168dd\/Picture2.png?format=300w 300w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/7b72fafb-9274-45b3-b972-52f648e168dd\/Picture2.png?format=500w 500w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/7b72fafb-9274-45b3-b972-52f648e168dd\/Picture2.png?format=750w 750w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/7b72fafb-9274-45b3-b972-52f648e168dd\/Picture2.png?format=1000w 1000w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/7b72fafb-9274-45b3-b972-52f648e168dd\/Picture2.png?format=1500w 1500w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/7b72fafb-9274-45b3-b972-52f648e168dd\/Picture2.png?format=2500w 2500w\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" data-loader=\"sqs\"><figcaption class=\"image-caption-wrapper\">\n<p class=\"\"><strong>Cover of 2010 publication by CIA introducing newly declassified material on the Korean War.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"\">In March 1952, the head of the Canadian Peace Congress, the well-known Christian missionary (and former OSS agent) Dr. James G. Endicott, publicly accused the Canadian government of conducting research on biological weapons, an episode that was explored in this author\u2019s&nbsp; March 2023 <a href=\"https:\/\/www.thecanadafiles.com\/articles\/did-canada-supply-infected-insects-to-us-military-during-the-korean-war\">article<\/a> for The Canada Files. Endicott\u2019s claims were highly controversial, and there were vociferous denials by Canadian authorities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">A few months later, in May, top government biological warfare scientist, Dr. Guilford Reed, told External Affairs Minister Lester Pearson that the Communists\u2019 charges of U.S. biological warfare were \u201centirely feasible.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">But, in an effort to mislead the public about the feasibility of the use of insect vectors in conducting a germ warfare attack, the Canadian government suppressed Reed\u2019s opinion, and substituted for it a statement by three non-government academic scientists that dismissed the accounts of U.S. germ warfare as \u201cbiological absurdities.\u201d The statement was supposedly independently offered in some kind of civic spirit, but in fact, was authored with the assistance of Canada\u2019s External Affairs Department itself.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">The true story of Canada\u2019s involvement in the Korean War biological warfare scandal has been hidden for years behind a veil of classification, in addition to press and academic disinterest. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">At the height of the Cold War, the Canadian government cooperated with the U.S. biological warfare program, and joined with the U.S. government to hide evidence that would expose the truth behind the charges of germ warfare. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\"><strong> <\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"\"><span><strong>\u201cSerious consideration to the probable use\u201d of Biological \u201cSpecial Weapons\u201d<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"\">In response to the DPRK and PRC\u2019s charges of U.S. biological warfare attack, the United States vociferously denied the charges of use of biological weapons and engaged in <a href=\"https:\/\/medium.com\/@jeff-kaye\/secret-plan-revealed-cia-told-to-destroy-those-supporting-communist-germ-warfare-myth-f466dfb071be\">a concerted effort<\/a> to counter the Communists\u2019 accusations. The U.S. maintained the charges were organized by the Soviet Union as part of an international campaign. The Canadians were asked to do their part in responding to this so-called false propaganda campaign. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Endicott\u2019s revelations had set off a publicity firestorm. Canadian press and politicians <a href=\"https:\/\/www.newspapers.com\/article\/the-montreal-star-montreal-star-editoria\/120338496\/\">urged prosecution<\/a> of Endicott for treason. But in secret cables behind the scenes, U.S. officials were counseling caution on pursuing charges against the popular ex-missionary, who was also a leading figure in Canada\u2019s United Christian Church and then-Chairman of the Canadian Peace Congress. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">On May 24, 1952, Humphrey Hume (\u201cH.H.\u201d) Wrong, Canada\u2019s Ambassador to the United States, sent a secret coded memorandum to Canada\u2019s Secretary of State for External Affairs, Lester Pearson. The subject was \u201cPossible prosecution of Dr. Endicott.\u201d <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Hume told Pearson that officials in the U.S. State Department were conferring with their confr\u00e8res in the Pentagon on the Endicott problem. Hume said he had received \u201ca clear impression\u201d that U.S. officials had \u201cgrave doubts\u201d whether they could provide \u201csatisfactory evidence\u2026 that would prove in a Canadian court that the allegations of Dr. Endicott are false.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Belying years of assertions by Western historians that the U.S. had ruled out offensive use of biological weaponry during the Korean War, Hume told Pearson while the U.S. had given \u201cno consideration\u201d to the possible use of BW by U.S. forces, the U.S. apparently had \u201cno general policy directive or military order in existence specifically prohibiting the use of germ warfare\u2026.\u201d [DOC 4, pg. 2 \u2013 A key to all document references is at the end of this article.]<\/p>\n<figure class=\"\n              sqs-block-image-figure\n              intrinsic\n            \"\n        ><\/p>\n<p>                  <img data-stretch=\"false\" data-image=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/a4bdee6a-9e43-4307-8f16-17901237ddb9\/Picture3.png\" data-image-dimensions=\"752x970\" data-image-focal-point=\"0.5,0.5\" alt=\"\" data-load=\"false\" src=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/a4bdee6a-9e43-4307-8f16-17901237ddb9\/Picture3.png?format=1000w\" width=\"752\" height=\"970\" sizes=\"100vw\" srcset=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/a4bdee6a-9e43-4307-8f16-17901237ddb9\/Picture3.png?format=100w 100w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/a4bdee6a-9e43-4307-8f16-17901237ddb9\/Picture3.png?format=300w 300w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/a4bdee6a-9e43-4307-8f16-17901237ddb9\/Picture3.png?format=500w 500w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/a4bdee6a-9e43-4307-8f16-17901237ddb9\/Picture3.png?format=750w 750w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/a4bdee6a-9e43-4307-8f16-17901237ddb9\/Picture3.png?format=1000w 1000w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/a4bdee6a-9e43-4307-8f16-17901237ddb9\/Picture3.png?format=1500w 1500w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/a4bdee6a-9e43-4307-8f16-17901237ddb9\/Picture3.png?format=2500w 2500w\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" data-loader=\"sqs\"><figcaption class=\"image-caption-wrapper\">\n<p class=\"\"><strong>October 1957 Press Photo: Lester Pearson wins the Nobel Peace Prize. Nobel Foundation, Associated Press, <\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Lester_Pearson_1957.jpg\"><strong>Public Domain<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"\">Knowingly or not, Hume was incorrect about there being \u201cno consideration\u201d of BW use. In fact, six months earlier, in a December 7, 1951, secret memo from Canada\u2019s Joint Staff to the Chairman of the DRB, Canada\u2019s top military officials stated: <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\u201cThe USAF [United States Air Force] is giving serious consideration to the probable use of special weapons, and is, at the present time, making a study, prior to naming a cognizant USAF agent to accept the responsibility of carrying out user trials of these weapons\u2026.\u201d [DOC 3, pg. 2]<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">If there were any question as to what these \u201cspecial weapons\u201d were, another secret memo later that month, on December 27, answers this. The secret memo from J.C. Clunie, the DRB Senior Staff Officer for Special Weapons, to the Chief Superintendent at the biological and chemical weapons (CW) test site in Suffield, Alberta, was even more specific.  <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Clunie wrote, \u201cThe USAF is giving serious consideration to the probable use of BW and CW Special Weapons.\u201d [DOC 3, pg. 5] <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">By late December 1951, the U.S. and South Korean armies had entered a stalemate with DPRK and Chinese forces. The U.S. generals were looking for a way to break out of the situation, short of use of nuclear weapons. Biological weapons for use against crops had already been standardized for use, and munitions for their possible use against the Soviet Union had been <a href=\"https:\/\/medium.com\/@jeff-kaye\/the-skelp-directives-u-s-secret-financing-of-germ-warfare-during-the-korean-war-ad5a6a206a97\">forward positioned at U.S. bases<\/a> in England and Libya. Clunie\u2019s statement about \u201cprobable use\u201d of BW seemed to be aimed at the conflict then underway in Korea. War with the Soviet Union was, U.S. officials felt, still two to five years in the future.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Clunie\u2019s warning came months after the U.S. defense establishment in fact had already <a href=\"https:\/\/s3.documentcloud.org\/documents\/24013513\/twining-directive-20-oct-1950.pdf\">issued orders<\/a> to attain \u201can Air Force-wide combat capability in Biological and Chemical Warfare (BW-CW) on a high-priority basis.\u201d The order, dated July 17, 1951, came from Major General R.C. Wilson and was issued by the Department of the Air Force in Washington. It followed an even earlier directive from General Nathan Twining on October 20 the previous year.  <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Twining, the U.S. Air Force Vice Chief of Staff, had ordered the acceleration of \u201cthe BW-CW program to give USAF an earliest possible combat capability.\u201d (Author Nicholson Baker wrote about Twining\u2019s directive in his recent book, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.penguinrandomhouse.com\/books\/553978\/baseless-by-nicholson-baker\/\"><em>Baseless: My Search for Secrets in the Ruins of the Freedom of Information Act<\/em><\/a><em> <\/em>[pg. 169-170]). <\/p>\n<p class=\"\"><strong> <\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"\"><span><strong>Canadian Scientist Cautioned Against Public Discussion of BW Charges<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Amidst the pending use of biological and\/or chemical weapons, U.S. officials were advising against prosecution of Endicott on the biological weapons issue. At the same time, Dr. Guilford H. Reed, Director of DRB\u2019s Biological Laboratories, and head of the Bacteriology Department at Queen\u2019s University, also was reportedly cautioning against \u201ca public discussion of the scientific aspect of the charges unless it is absolutely necessary.\u201d [DOC Z, pg. 5] It was clear that no one with knowledge of the secret BW program wanted it subjected to public scrutiny. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">U.S. officials wanted to fill the prosecutorial gap with well-crafted propaganda leaked to authoritative entities. State Department officials told Hume, who passed on their advice to Pearson in his May 24 memo, \u201cit might be worth considering having Dr. Endicott\u2019s charges examined by Canadian doctors or scientists of repute and publishing the results.\u201d <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\u201cThis might have some effect with the public in further discrediting Dr. Endicott,\u201d Hume suggested. [DOC 4, pg. 3] <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Endicott believed the evidence that Chinese and North Korean scientists had shown him regarding U.S. use of biological weapons, including infected insects, to spread plague, cholera and anthrax behind against enemy troops and behind enemy lines. Endicott suggested that Canada was assisting this campaign, and there were many who believed him. Meanwhile, the World Peace Council had <a href=\"https:\/\/repository.aip.org\/islandora\/object\/nbla%3A223231#page\/21\/mode\/2up\">released over a hundred pages<\/a> of documentation on the BW charges.<\/p>\n<figure class=\"\n              sqs-block-image-figure\n              intrinsic\n            \"\n        ><\/p>\n<p>                  <img data-stretch=\"false\" data-image=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/c9731cde-f7a6-44e1-ad9c-e3804e77b4a1\/Picture4.png\" data-image-dimensions=\"936x658\" data-image-focal-point=\"0.5,0.5\" alt=\"\" data-load=\"false\" src=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/c9731cde-f7a6-44e1-ad9c-e3804e77b4a1\/Picture4.png?format=1000w\" width=\"936\" height=\"658\" sizes=\"100vw\" srcset=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/c9731cde-f7a6-44e1-ad9c-e3804e77b4a1\/Picture4.png?format=100w 100w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/c9731cde-f7a6-44e1-ad9c-e3804e77b4a1\/Picture4.png?format=300w 300w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/c9731cde-f7a6-44e1-ad9c-e3804e77b4a1\/Picture4.png?format=500w 500w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/c9731cde-f7a6-44e1-ad9c-e3804e77b4a1\/Picture4.png?format=750w 750w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/c9731cde-f7a6-44e1-ad9c-e3804e77b4a1\/Picture4.png?format=1000w 1000w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/c9731cde-f7a6-44e1-ad9c-e3804e77b4a1\/Picture4.png?format=1500w 1500w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/c9731cde-f7a6-44e1-ad9c-e3804e77b4a1\/Picture4.png?format=2500w 2500w\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" data-loader=\"sqs\"><figcaption class=\"image-caption-wrapper\">\n<p class=\"\"><strong>James Endicott meets with Chinese scientists to discuss laboratory findings on germ war evidence, March 1952, from Endicott\u2019s pamphlet, \u201c<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/s3.documentcloud.org\/documents\/4479198\/James-Endicott-I-Accuse-Pamphlet.pdf\"><strong>I Accuse<\/strong><\/a><strong>\u201d, published Summer 1952<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"\">Endicott was not mistaken about Canada\u2019s role, but he certainly didn\u2019t know the full story. As far back as December 1948, there was pressure from Canada\u2019s Defence Research Board\u2019s Biological Warfare Panel to set up \u201cclose liaison\u201d with the DRB\u2019s Entomological Research Panel. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">The minutes of the entomology panel on December 18 noted, \u201cThe Chairman stated that he had been approached by the Chairman of the B.W. Panel on the subject of liaison between the two panels. Both felt that there were many questions arising in one panel on which the other might offer considerable assistance.\u201d [DOC 1, p. 3] <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Whether it was bureaucratic indifference or even resistance, almost two months later at the February 5, 1949, meeting of the DRB Entomological Research Panel, the minutes revealed the desired collaboration between the two panels was not happening quickly enough.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\u201cDr. Glen inquired if any action had been taken to insure close liaison with the B.W. Panel. He and Prof. Hocking considered that the matter was becoming urgent. After further discussion it was again agreed that the secretary was to discuss the proposal with the secretary of the B.W. Panel,\u201d the minutes stated. [DOC 1, pg. 16] <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">It\u2019s not clear why the liaison between the BW scientists and the insect specialists was so \u201curgent,\u201d but other documents testify to tests soon to be underway on biological weapons based on insect vector infectivity, as will be documented further below. In addition, it is possible that Canadian BW scientists had been given some access via their collaboration with the U.S. BW labs at Camp Detrick to newly acquired intelligence on Japan\u2019s own biological weapons work utilizing insect hosts.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">The urgency apparently had one part of the defence bureaucracy running ahead of the other. A week before the Entomological Research (ER) Panel meeting on February 5, 1949, the DRB had issued an amended \u201cConstitution\u201d for the ER panel. Among other things, the group would \u201cAct as adviser to the Defence Research Board in all entomological matters related to the defence of Canada.\u201d [DOC 1, p. 22] \u201cAll entomological matters\u201d indicates that weapons weren\u2019t excluded from areas the ER panel could advise on.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">The new \u201cConstitution\u201d explained that the ER panel could \u201cco-opt as consultants such specialists as it considers necessary for the review of particular projects, subject to the approval of the Chairman of the Defence Research Board.\u201d&nbsp; [DOC 1, p. 23] <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">This \u201cConstitution\u201d indicated that while much of the work was unclassified, some of it \u201cmay be classified as \u2018secret\u2019 by the Chairman.\u201d As a result, it was necessary to have all panel members sign a sworn oath of secrecy: <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\u201cI\u2026 solemnly swear that I will not communicate or allow to be communicated to any person not legally entitled thereto any information relating to the affairs of the said Panel, nor will I allow any such person to inspect or have access to any books or documents belonging to or in the possession of the said Panel and relating to its business. So help me God.\u201d [Ibid.]<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\n<p class=\"\"><span><strong>1949: A \u201ccluster bomb for certain BW agents exists\u201d<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"\">As of 1949, documents do not indicate how far the work on insect and animal vectors had gone in developing weapons with biological pathogens. While Dr. Reed at Queen\u2019s University was working with the idea of dropping infected baits to attract the native flies of a region, Surgeon Commander M.C. Wellman of the Royal Canadian Navy had developed a method of using \u201cthe usual laboratory animals\u201d to propagate bubonic plague. The \u201cvirulent bacilli could be \u201cfurther multiplied in culture,\u201d and the resultant aerosol attached to a \u201cbattery of nebulizers\u201d which could be delivered to the enemy via a \u201cparachute controlled descent\u201d mechanism, up-wind or directly onto the target. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Wellman\u2019s plan was meant to take advantage of the \u201cpsychological effect\u201d of such an attack. It was already understood that even in regular high explosive bombardments, \u201cnear misses\u201d were unnerving to those exposed. Of course, Wellman admitted, use of plague had its \u201cdisadvantages\u2026 making bubonic plague endemic in a neighborhood,\u201d leaving the target area open to plague infection for many years. There was also the \u201cpossibility of contamination of one\u2019s own troops.\u201d [DOC 1, pg. 28-29] In any case, Wellman\u2019s BW scenarios did not entail the use of insect delivery systems.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Canada continued to conduct its own BW research in the formal, if secret, tripartite association with the United States and Great Britain. In a secret appendix to the Canadian Army\u2019s \u201cFirst Periodical Standardization Report\u201d, meant to record the progress made in standardizing weaponry between the three allied nations, a section on Biological Warfare, dated March 31, 1949, noted that \u201cjoint field trials\u201d on BW weapons had already been undertaken. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">The authors of the report concluded, \u201cA common type of cluster bomb for certain BW agents exists.\u201d [DOC 1, pg. 33] These bombs were likely filled with biological agents meant to be used against enemy crops or animals, but may also have already included plague or other human pathogens.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">The existence in Spring 1949 of BW cluster bombs is corroborated by the sworn affidavit of John L. Schwab, the Chief of the Special Operations Division (SOD) at Ft. Detrick during the Korean War. Schwab <a href=\"https:\/\/jeff-kaye.medium.com\/the-schnacke-affidavit-u-s-admission-of-offensive-germ-warfare-capability-during-the-korean-war-d845040043ae\">told a U.S. federal court<\/a> in January 1959 that since the beginning of 1949 and through the end of the Korean War, \u201cthe U.S. Army had a capability to wage both chemical and biological warfare, offensively and defensively.\u201d  <\/p>\n<figure class=\"\n              sqs-block-image-figure\n              intrinsic\n            \"\n        ><\/p>\n<p>                  <img data-stretch=\"false\" data-image=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/6bdaff39-d031-4917-800b-023f98b1490c\/Picture5.png\" data-image-dimensions=\"936x884\" data-image-focal-point=\"0.5,0.5\" alt=\"\" data-load=\"false\" src=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/6bdaff39-d031-4917-800b-023f98b1490c\/Picture5.png?format=1000w\" width=\"936\" height=\"884\" sizes=\"100vw\" srcset=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/6bdaff39-d031-4917-800b-023f98b1490c\/Picture5.png?format=100w 100w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/6bdaff39-d031-4917-800b-023f98b1490c\/Picture5.png?format=300w 300w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/6bdaff39-d031-4917-800b-023f98b1490c\/Picture5.png?format=500w 500w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/6bdaff39-d031-4917-800b-023f98b1490c\/Picture5.png?format=750w 750w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/6bdaff39-d031-4917-800b-023f98b1490c\/Picture5.png?format=1000w 1000w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/6bdaff39-d031-4917-800b-023f98b1490c\/Picture5.png?format=1500w 1500w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/6bdaff39-d031-4917-800b-023f98b1490c\/Picture5.png?format=2500w 2500w\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" data-loader=\"sqs\"><figcaption class=\"image-caption-wrapper\">\n<p class=\"\"><strong>In January 1951, the Chemical Corps Technical Committee approved the M33 biological cluster bomb as a standardized BW weapon with a \u201cfill\u201d of the pathogen&nbsp;<em>brucella suis<\/em>. \u2014 Picture in the Public Domain, via&nbsp;<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/M33_cluster_bomb\" ><strong>Wikipedia<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"\">Moreover, Schwab said, \u201cThat during the aforesaid period, the biological warfare capability was based upon resources available and retrained only within the continental limits of the United States.\u201d Schwab didn\u2019t mention the still secret tripartite BW development program with Canada, or that the U.S. was <a href=\"https:\/\/www.thecanadafiles.com\/articles\/did-canada-supply-infected-insects-to-us-military-during-the-korean-war\">using the vast expanse of the Suffield Experimental Station<\/a> in Alberta for field testing such weapons, including BW cluster bombs. In any case, his admission of U.S. readiness to use biological weapons a year before the Korean War even started was subsequently buried by both press and historians for decades. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Prior to 1949, in December 1947, G.H. Reed had prepared a paper for the DRB\u2019s BW Research Panel, \u201cThe present position of Bacteriological Warfare &#8211; a Brief Review,\u201d that detailed some of the antipersonnel BW agents the Canadians and their allied partners were working on. These included anthrax, brucellosis (or undulating fever), plague, tularemia, Coccidioides, various dysentery organisms, the toxin Botulinum, and plant disease organisms. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">The Canadian scientists had done a good deal of work on Botulinum. Reed bragged that the toxin, which produces botulism, worked better than any chemical gas. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">He further revealed: <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\u201cMethods have been developed, through pilot plant stage, for the productions of types A and B toxin in semi-purified form\u2026 it has a long storage life\u2026 Satisfactory air-borne clouds of [botulinum] toxin have been produced in the laboratory and fairly extensive field trials have been carried out with the toxin dispersed from small aircraft bombs.\u201d [DOC 2, pg. 5]<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Reed noted how, even at this early date, \u201ca limited amount of experimental work\u201d had been done using insects as vectors of disease \u201ctransfer.\u201d Besides the idea of dropping infected insect baits, bombs were being tested that used flies that had been fed \u201con cultures of typhoid-dysentery type bacteria,\u201d which would then be released \u201cfrom screen cages contained in aircraft bombs.\u201d [DOC 2, pg. 7]<\/p>\n<figure class=\"\n              sqs-block-image-figure\n              intrinsic\n            \"\n        ><\/p>\n<p>                  <img data-stretch=\"false\" data-image=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/3703ece4-d338-40a8-bf42-cec3874ec120\/Picture6.png\" data-image-dimensions=\"936x512\" data-image-focal-point=\"0.5,0.5\" alt=\"\" data-load=\"false\" src=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/3703ece4-d338-40a8-bf42-cec3874ec120\/Picture6.png?format=1000w\" width=\"936\" height=\"512\" sizes=\"100vw\" srcset=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/3703ece4-d338-40a8-bf42-cec3874ec120\/Picture6.png?format=100w 100w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/3703ece4-d338-40a8-bf42-cec3874ec120\/Picture6.png?format=300w 300w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/3703ece4-d338-40a8-bf42-cec3874ec120\/Picture6.png?format=500w 500w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/3703ece4-d338-40a8-bf42-cec3874ec120\/Picture6.png?format=750w 750w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/3703ece4-d338-40a8-bf42-cec3874ec120\/Picture6.png?format=1000w 1000w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/3703ece4-d338-40a8-bf42-cec3874ec120\/Picture6.png?format=1500w 1500w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/3703ece4-d338-40a8-bf42-cec3874ec120\/Picture6.png?format=2500w 2500w\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" data-loader=\"sqs\"><figcaption class=\"image-caption-wrapper\">\n<p class=\"\"><strong>Screenshot of handwritten confession&nbsp;by U.S. Air Force Lt. Kenneth Enoch (April 7, 1952), describing material from an August 25, 1951 lecture he attended at Iwakuni Air Base in Japan, educating airmen on the subject of bacteriological warfare (<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/s3.documentcloud.org\/documents\/4334133\/ISC-Full-Report-Pub-Copy.pdf\"><strong>ISC report<\/strong><\/a><strong>, PDF pg. 590)<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"\">A procedure almost identical to this was revealed by captured U.S. Air Force Lieutenant Kenneth Enoch in testimony to both his Chinese captors and Western investigators from the World Peace Council-sponsored International Scientific Commission [ISC] in August 1952. Enoch said he was told in a lecture a year earlier that U.S. bacteriological warfare had \u201ca germ bomb which looks just like an ordinary bomb, but is filled with germ-laden insects, and which will open on contact with the ground to release them.\u201d In addition, they had a method of \u201cdropping insects in paper or cardboard containers which will break open on contact with the ground, releasing the insects with their germs.\u201d [<a href=\"https:\/\/s3.documentcloud.org\/documents\/4334133\/ISC-Full-Report-Pub-Copy.pdf\">Link to ISC report<\/a>, see PDF pg. 133.]<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Enoch stated he was told that the U.S. \u201chad no plans at that time of using bacteriological warfare but nevertheless we might at some time,\u201d and that \u201cthe lecture was secret information and we were not to divulge its contents to anyone, or even talk about it among ourselves.\u201d [Ibid., pg. 589]<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">It is very interesting that the initial reports by Chinese and DPRK Forces in February 1952 indicated drops of infected insects over the frigid snowy fields of North Korea and the Manchurian region of China, as Reed was as early as late 1947 discussing the survivability of \u2018living micro-organisms\u2019 at low temperature. He told the DRB that viruses could \u201cremain viable for long periods at about 60\u00baC below zero.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\u201cBacteria like typhoid bacilli are not injured by a short exposure to this order of temperature but in water ice survival is limited to two to three months,\u201d Reed wrote. Anthrax could withstand temperatures below -60\u00baC \u201cfor long periods without injury.\u201d [DOC 2, pg. 10]<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Critics of DPRK and PRC\u2019s reports of use of insects in the extreme cold of winter appear to focus on the viability of the insects themselves. But it\u2019s clear that dead or dying insects carrying some pathogens do still carry those pathogens, such as anthrax or cholera, to the soil or water sources despite the winter exposure. As peasant witnesses to germ warfare attack interviewed by the ISC in summer 1952 testified, sometimes these insects also <a href=\"https:\/\/medium.com\/@jeff-kaye\/report-u-s-dropped-plague-infected-fleas-on-north-korea-in-march-1952-66b853f05ada\">directly<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/medium.com\/@jeff-kaye\/a-concealed-war-crime-u-s-anthrax-bombings-of-china-during-the-korean-war-14782ceb40a9\">infected<\/a> humans on contact. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">It\u2019s worth recalling that in the earlier, extensive biological warfare work of Japan\u2019s Unit 731, they had also experimented with use of biological weapons and insects in frigid temperatures. After World War II General Douglas MacArthur sought to convince officialdom in Washington, D.C. to provide amnesty for war crimes to Shiro Ishii and the scientists of Unit 731 \u2013 so the US could use their expertise for the U.S. BW program. MacArthur had <a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=LHmerwtED1AC&amp;pg=PA163&amp;lpg=PA163&amp;dq=%2522Ishii+claims+to+have+extensive+theoretical+high-level+knowledge+including+strategic%2522&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=-O13iG785_&amp;sig=ACfU3U2DM6vBJdOyBDeCwCK4PcI0cduo9Q&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiLwPLUovv2AhVHEEQIHUYJBHQQ6AF6BAgCEAM%2523v=onepage&amp;q=%2522Ishii%20claims%20to%20have%20extensive%20theoretical%20high-level%20knowledge%20including%20strategic%2522&amp;f=false#v=onepage&amp;q=%2522Ishii%20claims%20to%20have%20extensive%20theoretical%20high-level%20knowledge%20including%20strategic%2522&amp;f=false\">explained<\/a>, \u201cIshii claims to have extensive theoretical high-level knowledge including\u2026 the use of BW in cold climates.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Most important was an admission about the work on acclimating insects to cold made before a March 26, 1962 session of House Appropriations Committee looking at the &#8220;Chemical and Biological Warfare Program, Army.\u201d The chief of the U.S. Army Chemical Corps, Major General Marshall Stubbs, described to committee members, including then Congressman (and later President) Gerald Ford, Ft. Detrick\u2019s bacteriological weapons research. He mentioned modifying insects for exposure to cold.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\u201cIn other areas of the program the genetics of insects and plants are being investigated. Mutants of insects [sic] species are examined for increased resistance to insecticides <em>and cold temperatures<\/em>. Genetics of population changes, gene competition, radiation effects on survival, and propagation of insects <em>and development of desired characteristics<\/em> are studied intensively,\u201d Stubbs said. (See <a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=hfz-bWWGax0C&amp;pg=RA4-PA177&amp;dq=Attention+is+devoted+to+basic+studies+in+genetics+to+understand+the+mechanisms+involved,+evolve+new+concepts+and+increase+the+body+of+knowledge+in+general&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwis4Onvg-f_AhXmPkQIHaXjDs0Q6AF6BAgFEAI#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false\">ebook of the hearings, pg. 177<\/a>, italics added for emphasis.) &nbsp;<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\n<p class=\"\"><span><strong>Botulinum and Anthrax: \u201cLarge scale operations are altogether feasible\u2026.\u201d<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"\">The U.S. collaboration with Japan\u2019s Unit 731 scientists was not mentioned in the numerous formerly classified reports and documents released thus far on either the U.S. or Canadian biowarfare programs. Part of the agreement between the U.S. parties privy to the agreement with Ishii and his colleagues was that the information gained would be closely held <a href=\"https:\/\/medium.com\/@jeff-kaye\/department-of-justice-official-releases-letter-admitting-u-s-amnesty-of-unit-731-war-criminals-9b7da41d8982\">\u201cin intelligence channels\u201d<\/a> only. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">As an example of how deeply buried this collaboration was, a June 27, 1950, DRB status report on BW was sent to Canada\u2019s Chiefs of Staff Committee at the Department of National Defence. It stated incorrectly, \u201cB.W. has not been used to a significant degree in warfare. Knowledge is limited to the results of laboratory and field study\u2026.\u201d [DOC 2, pg. 17] <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">It was as if Japan\u2019s large-scale biological warfare field trials that <a href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/world\/2002\/aug\/28\/artsandhumanities.japan\">killed tens, if not hundreds of thousands in China<\/a> had never taken place.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Even so, in the June 27 report, dated only two days after DPRK troops crossed the 38th parallel, the DRB had much to say about the progress Canada and her partners had made in readying biological weapons.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\u201cFive agents have been sufficiently tested in the field to permit reasonably accurate estimates of their effectiveness,\u201d the report stated, naming specifically anthrax, brucella, tularemia, Pestis (plague) and Botulinum toxin. The report continued:<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\u201dConsiderable work has been done on the production of the above named agents in mass quantity, especially in the U.S. In Canada mass production has been on a relatively small scale and limited to anthrax spores and botulinum toxin. Enough, however, has been done in the three countries to justify the opinion that large scale operations are altogether feasible\u2026.\u2019\u201d [DOC 2, pg. 17-18]<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">The DRB report also mentioned field trials on biological bombs, such as trials allowing the munitions manufacturers to calculate the amount of agent per cubic meter of air needed to infect and kill animals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Regarding insects, the report described how Reed\u2019s project of dropping infected insect baits as a means of biological attack was developing. \u201cReasonably accurate estimates have been made of the rate at which house and fruit flies distribute bacteria of the enteric and dysentery group of bacteria from contaminated baits to human or animal foods.\u201d [IBID.]  <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">In the Summary section of the report \u2013 \u201cResults of B.W. work in Canada during and since the war\u201d \u2013 the DRB report\u2019s authors discussed where Canada was on the very eve of the Korean War. Botulinum toxin had been successfully produced on a large-scale, and field tests at Suffield \u201cdemonstrated it to be an efficient weapon.\u201d <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">The June 27 summary also blandly stated, \u201cFollowing the U.K. finding that anthrax spores provide an efficient B.W. agent a method was developed for large scale production. A large volume was prepared.\u201d Extensive testing of use of peat as a delivery agent was underway. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">There was also a special section on \u201cInsect Vectors.\u201d The report announced that \u201cNew methods were developed for determining the carrying capacity of house and fruit flies for pathogenic bacteria.\u201d Baits using salmonella appeared to be particularly promising. [DOC 2, pg. 22]<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Reed was the only scientist present at a high-level meeting of the Canadian Chiefs of Staff Committee held on July 3, 1950. Also present were the chiefs of General Staff, Air Staff, Naval Staff, the Acting Chairman of the Defence Research Board (a Dr. Green), as well as other high officials, including Undersecretary of State for External Affairs, Arnold D.P. Heeney, and Cabinet Secretary Norman A. Robertson.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Meeting attendees were told that their British partners wanted to know if top Canadian military brass \u201cwere agreed on the importance of biological warfare and were anxious to continue offensive as well as defensive research in this field.\u201d  <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">While the British had provisionally approved a new pilot plant at their BW headquarters at Porton Down \u201cfor the experimental bulk production of agents\u2026necessary for the continuation of their fundamental research programme,\u201d they wanted to have the \u201cviews of the U.S. and Canadian Chiefs of Staff as to the operational value of this form of warfare and the degree of priority that it should be given.\u201d [DOC 2, pg. 32]  <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">It was understood the U.S. was building a new bulk plant for production of BW agent. A meeting of scientists from \u201cspecial weapons\u201d departments in the three Allied countries were slated to meet in Canada that October to further consider these matters. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">When it was Reed\u2019s turn to report, he \u201cdescribed the production facilities available in Canada.\u201d During World War II there had been two plants in operation, at Kingston and Gros \u00cele. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\u201cAlthough these were still in existence, no attempt had been made since the war to develop large-scale production; nor was any such production contemplated. It was considered, however, that the Kingston plant would be suitable for moderate-scale production should the need arise.\u201d [DOC 2, pp. 24)<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">1950 was an important year in Canada\u2019s postwar BW program. According to a DRB Annual Report from 1951, in summer 1950, around the same time as the Chiefs meeting in July, BW trials were ratcheted up \u201con an increased scale.\u201d The facilities at the BW trials area at Suffield Experimental Station had \u201cbeen considerably improved,\u201d and research continued \u201con a variety of BW problems.\u201d [DOC 2, pg. 41]<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\n<p class=\"\"><span><strong>\u201cGrave doubts\u201d<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"\">The full aspects of Canada\u2019s collaboration with the U.S. and UK biowarfare programs were not known by Dr. James Endicott when the scandal over his remarks broke. But there is no doubt today that his revelations had triggered a scramble to respond at the highest levels of the Canadian government.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">In Canada\u2019s ambassador to the U.S., Humphrey Wrong\u2019s May 24, 1952 secret memo sent by cipher to Lester Pearson at the Department of External Affairs, he explained that the Endicott scandal was discussed \u201cin the strictest confidence\u201d with the U.S. State Department\u2019s Legal Adviser. Furthermore, the State Department was consulting with officials in the Department of Defense on the question of \u201chow far it would be possible for competent United States authorities to cooperate with a prosecution (if it were decided to prosecute Dr. Endicott).\u201d [DOC 4, pg. 2, parentheses in original]<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">According to Wrong, \u201cUnited States officials have grave doubts that they will be able to furnish satisfactory evidence from United States sources that would prove in a Canadian court that the allegations of Dr. Endicott are false.\u201d [IBID.] <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\u201cIn addition,\u201d Wrong wrote, \u201cit would presumably be necessary to have United States officers of the United Nations Command available for questioning in the court to disprove specific Endicott allegations. Not having direct access to the evidence which Endicott claims to have seen in China, except in print or photography form, it would be difficult to prove that this evidence is false and was known to have been false by Endicott when he uttered these allegations.\u201d [IBID.] <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">For its part, the State Department was advising against <em>any<\/em> prosecution of Endicott. Wrong explained: \u201cThey suggest\u2026 it might be worth considering having Dr. Endicott\u2019s charges examined by Canadian doctors or scientists of repute and publishing the results. This might have some effect with the public in further discrediting Dr. Endicott.\u201d [DOC 4, p. 3] <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">There was definitely a felt need to discredit Endicott, as later there would be to condemn the report of the International Scientific Commission, which had found the Communists\u2019 BW allegations credible. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Not everyone in the West had accepted U.S. innocence. Even as late as December 8, 1953, nearly six months after the Korean War armistice, a secret memo from Seamon Morley Scott at the Canadian Embassy in Tokyo to the Under-Secretary of State for External Affairs described a discussion with an officer from India\u2019s Department of External Affairs, Bahadur Singh.  <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Singh, who had been stationed in Washington, D.C., told a Canadian Colonel Dailley that he had carefully followed the BW controversy. Singh concluded that he was not convinced there had been no bacteriological warfare undertaken by United Nations Command in Korea. \u201cHe suspected that a very small amount was carried on, perhaps unknown to the highest people in Washington,\u201d Scott wrote.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Singh was not the only one to question Washington\u2019s denials. \u201cI remember, a year or so ago,\u201d Scott wrote, \u201ctalking in New York with an eminent Scandinavian jurist who said he had read everything he came across about the charges, and that he was not convinced of their untruth.\u201d [DOC 4, p. 5] <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Hence there was a lot riding on the testimony of \u201cexperts\u201d to bolster the U.S. case. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\n<p class=\"\"><strong> <\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"\"><span><strong>The \u201cExperts\u201d Testimony<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"\">By June 1952, Canada\u2019s External Affairs department had found their scientists: Professors A.W. Baker, W.H. Brittain and C.E. Atwood. Brittain was Vice-Principal and entomologist, Macdonald College, McGill University; Baker was Head of the Entomology and Zoology Department at Ontario Agricultural College; and Atwood was Professor of Zoology at the University of Toronto. None had experience working in defence matters, or any expertise on the subject of biological warfare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">In a June 20 memorandum to Minister of Justice Stuart Garson, an unknown official described how a tentative draft of preliminary remarks had been prepared for Garson in introducing the scientists\u2019 statement in parliament. The draft emphasized the supposed independence of Brittain, Baker and Atwood [DOC 13. pg. 7], \u201cthree distinguished Canadian entomologists, none of whom is in the employ of the Federal Government, [and] who have been gravely concerned that these utterly unfounded charges should be laid in Canada and elsewhere, against the forces of the United States which are, in fact, in this instance, the forces of the United Nations.\u201d [DOC 13, pg. 8]<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Indeed, introducing the scientists\u2019 statement before the House of Commons on June 27, Justice Minister Garson described Brittain, Baker and Atwood as \u201cfree men in a free society\u2026. they have, upon their own initiative, produced this reply to Dr. Endicott\u2019s untruths concerning bacteriological warfare and, having produced it, turned it over at once to the parliament and the government of their country.\u201d [DOC 13, p. 10]<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">But the statement was not only not made on \u201ctheir own initiative.\u201d In fact, it wasn\u2019t entirely written by them. The June 20 memo from External Affairs noted above included an admission of collaboration in the statement\u2019s authorship: \u201cProfessors Baker and Atwood were with us yesterday engaged until about 3:30 p.m. in completing their statement.\u201d [DOC 13, pg. 6]<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">The statement by Brittain, Baker and Atwood (BBA) was <a href=\"https:\/\/www.newspapers.com\/article\/the-kingston-whig-standard-canada-dept-o\/131047860\/\">released to the press<\/a> and published by the Canadian government on July 11, 1952. It was a withering critique of Endicott\u2019s \u201cevidence\u201d and that of the \u201cInternational Jurists\u201d that had gone as investigators some months earlier to Korea and China. (The latter was a reference to the International Association of Democratic Lawyers, which had sent an investigating group to the DRPK and PRC in March 1952.)<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">The language used in their critique showed their bias in full display. BBA wrote that Endicott and the other non-biological science investigators \u201care not much more capable of appreciating evidence in the field of biology than the \u2018honest old farmers\u2019 and \u2018bright-eyed children\u2019 from whom Dr. Endicott obtained much of his information\u2026. Statements by farmers that \u2018these insects\u2019 have not been seen in the area mean nothing\u2026.\u201d [DOC 13, pg. 11]<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">The government-backed scientists looked for any evidence of contradictions or mistakes they could find. They accused Endicott of exaggerating his findings, while displaying \u201can almost unbelievable credulity.\u201d As for the displays of insects published in a World Peace Organization booklet, \u201cDocumentation on Bacteriological Warfare\u201d, these were \u201cvery vague from an entomologist\u2019s point of view\u2026. We cannot imagine any trained entomologist referring to them in terms given in the text.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">It is not possible to provide a full summary here of BBA\u2019s report. The entire report can be <a href=\"https:\/\/www.newspapers.com\/article\/the-kingston-whig-standard-canada-dept-o\/131047860\/\">read here<\/a>. The World Peace Congress\u2019 pamphlet, \u201cDocumentation on Biological Warfare,\u201d can also be <a href=\"https:\/\/repository.aip.org\/islandora\/object\/nbla%3A223231#page\/28\/mode\/2up\">accessed online<\/a> at the Niels Bohr Library and Archives.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Both the Canadian Prime Minister\u2019s Office (PMO) and Canada\u2019s Department of National Defence (DND) declined to comment. The DND\u2019s head of media relations Dan Le Bouthillier said in full, \u201cGiven these allegations are more than 70 years old, DND\/CAF have no information on this matter, nor can it corroborate any of the information presented.\u201d <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\n<p class=\"\"><span><strong>The Influence of Biological Warfare Propaganda <\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\n<p class=\"\">The work of Brittain, Atwood and Baker got extended coverage in both the Canadian and international press, and was also used in international forums, including the United Nations and the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva. In later years, their work was repeatedly cited in histories about the BW controversy, including the influential 1971 compendium, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sipri.org\/sites\/default\/files\/cbw_vol4.pdf\"><em>The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare<\/em><\/a>,<em> <\/em>published by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (Vol 4, pg. 217).<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">The statement was featured as late as 2006 in a chapter to the book, <em>Deadly Cultures: Biological Weapons since 1945<\/em> (Harvard Univ. Press, M. Wheelis, L. Rozsa, &amp; M. Dando, Eds.) The chapter, \u201cThe Canadian Biological Weapons Program and the Tripartite Alliance,\u201d was written by respected Canadian historian Donald Avery. Avery wrote about the June 1952 statement \u201cprepared by three eminent Canadian entomologists.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Avery wrote:<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\u201cAfter examining available evidence, these experts dismissed the Chinese and Korean charges as nothing more than \u2018biological absurdities,\u2019 pointing out that if the US military had really wanted to use BW for strategic purposes, they would not \u2018have adopted such inept, infantile and altogether stupid methods in a field in which they are supposed to be masters,\u201d (<em>Deadly Cultures<\/em>, pg. 92).<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Yet the Canadian historian should have known that there was more to the scientists\u2019 statement than he wrote. According to his own essay quoted above (footnote 24, pg. 402), he was fully aware of the work of two other Canadian historians, Stephen Endicott (Dr. James Endicott\u2019s son) and Edward Hagerman, who had published in 1998 their summary research work on the BW controversy, <em>The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets form the Early Cold War and Korea<\/em> (University of Indiana Press). The book concluded that U.S. had undertaken large-scale field trials of biological weapons, as the DPRK and PRC charged. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Professor Endicott and his collaborator, Ed Hagerman, returned to the issue of the scientist\u2019s statement in their 1998 book, at least briefly. They noted that in May 1952 the Canadian government had also solicited the opinion of the Canadian government\u2019s BW entomology expert Guilford Reed about James Endicott\u2019s charges (pg. 190-191). <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">But Avery chose not to mention Reed\u2019s statement. Instead, he chose to briefly cite a later 1954 paper co-authored by Reed, which called \u201cthe supposed method of dispersal [via insect vectors] ridiculous.\u201d It\u2019s worth noting that by 1954, the CIA was operating a covert, potentially <a href=\"https:\/\/medium.com\/@jeff-kaye\/secret-plan-revealed-cia-told-to-destroy-those-supporting-communist-germ-warfare-myth-f466dfb071be\">deadly campaign of suppression<\/a> of individuals or agencies supportive of the BW charges made by China, DPRK, and the Soviet Union. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">This author wrote to ask Professor Avery, now retired, why he had not mentioned Reed\u2019s 1952 statement in his 2006 essay. Avery did not respond. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\"><strong> <\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"\"><span><strong>Reed\u2019s testimony: \u201cNo obvious impossibilities\u201d<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Reed\u2019s \u201cCommunist Allegations of Bacteriological Warfare in Korean and China,\u201d marked as \u201cread\u201d by the office of External Affairs Minister Lester Pearson, was a bit leery of the Communists\u2019 charges, but unlike Brittain, et al., Reed found the charges \u201centirely feasible.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Reed first addressed the issue of finding insects allegedly dropped in the dead of winter. \u201cFrom the scientific point of view the campaign contains a number of anomalies,\u201d Reed wrote: <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\u201cThe main point made in the entire presentation is the finding of insects on the ground, in several instances at temperatures far below that which insects are known to show any activity\u2026. These insects were alleged to be alive and it is claimed that they scattered over a wide area\u2026. It is claimed that this indicates cold-conditioning of the insects, and while this is biologically conceivable, it would involve a long drawn-out and elaborate study\u2026. cold-conditioning of one species of insect alone would take approximately 2-3 years of careful work\u2026 It is inconceivable that anyone undertaking such a project would go to the infinite labour of cold-conditioning of a number of insects unsuitable as carriers, such as crickets or grasshoppers.\u201d <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">If the reader then doubted that such cold-conditioning of insects could have been used, Reed\u2019s account, which stated such conditioning to be \u201cbiologically feasible,\u201d discounted any such disbelief. It is also worth pointing out that no Chinese or DPRK document ever asserted that crickets or grasshoppers were ever found to carry any disease organism.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Reed stated what for him must have seemed obvious: \u201cThe Communist propaganda has been carefully prepared and there are no obvious impossibilities with regard to the diseases and the carriers with which they are supposed to be associated.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">The Queens University scientists and head of Canada\u2019s Biological Weapons lab did think the charges of BW artillery shells to be unlikely:  <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\u201cIt is felt that the construction of artillery shells carrying insects would present insurmountable difficulties and besides, bearing in mind the short range of artillery, such insects would naturally constitute a danger to the troops firing the shells.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">The same was not true for insect bombs or other means of air dissemination. \u201cThe dropping of insects from the air is entirely feasible,\u201d Reed wrote. He should have known, as he was closely involved with and informed about such secret munitions experiments:  <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\u201cSuch objects as rotten fish and bags of pork are rather unorthodox B.W. weapons but again they are not entirely impossible,\u201d Reed continued. \u201cThe use of feathers [to artificially spread disease] has been experimented with in Canada, although anthrax, which the Communists link with them, was not used in our experiments.\u201d [DOC Z, pg. 6]<\/p>\n<p data-rte-preserve-empty=\"true\" class=\"\">\n<figure class=\"\n              sqs-block-image-figure\n              intrinsic\n            \"\n        ><\/p>\n<p>                  <img data-stretch=\"false\" data-image=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/4063da99-6343-42dc-ae8a-9d4fdf54d77d\/Picture7.png\" data-image-dimensions=\"530x766\" data-image-focal-point=\"0.5,0.5\" alt=\"\" data-load=\"false\" src=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/4063da99-6343-42dc-ae8a-9d4fdf54d77d\/Picture7.png?format=1000w\" width=\"530\" height=\"766\" sizes=\"100vw\" srcset=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/4063da99-6343-42dc-ae8a-9d4fdf54d77d\/Picture7.png?format=100w 100w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/4063da99-6343-42dc-ae8a-9d4fdf54d77d\/Picture7.png?format=300w 300w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/4063da99-6343-42dc-ae8a-9d4fdf54d77d\/Picture7.png?format=500w 500w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/4063da99-6343-42dc-ae8a-9d4fdf54d77d\/Picture7.png?format=750w 750w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/4063da99-6343-42dc-ae8a-9d4fdf54d77d\/Picture7.png?format=1000w 1000w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/4063da99-6343-42dc-ae8a-9d4fdf54d77d\/Picture7.png?format=1500w 1500w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/4063da99-6343-42dc-ae8a-9d4fdf54d77d\/Picture7.png?format=2500w 2500w\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" data-loader=\"sqs\"><figcaption class=\"image-caption-wrapper\">\n<p class=\"\"><strong>Guilford B. Reed in front of the Kingston Laboratory, date unknown, but likely the early 1950s. Source: <\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/museumofhealthcare.blog\/the-story-of-dr-guilford-b-reed-and-his-influenza-vaccine\/\"><strong>Museum of Healthcare At Kingston, Blog<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"\">While Reed had his caveats about Endicott and the Communists\u2019 revelations on BW use, his conclusions were in the end diametrically the opposite of those publicized by the hand-picked Canadian scientists. Instead of \u201cbiological absurdities\u201d and \u201cunbelievable credulity,\u201d Reed, who had intimate knowledge of the U.S., Canadian and UK biological warfare programs, found the charges of use of biological weapons against Korea and China to present \u201cno obvious impossibilities.\u201d The use of infected insects dropped from the skies was \u201centirely feasible.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Reed\u2019s admission that feathers were experimented upon as BW vectors is surprising, even as James Endicott had already publicly accused the Americans of using infected feathers in his Summer 1952 pamphlet, <a href=\"https:\/\/s3.documentcloud.org\/documents\/4479198\/James-Endicott-I-Accuse-Pamphlet.pdf\">\u201cI Accuse\u201d<\/a> (pg. 17). The use of feathers as a carrier of biological agents was highly classified. A top-secret December 15, 1950, joint special report by the U.S. Chemical Corps\u2019 Crops Division and its CIA-linked Special Operations Division in Camp Detrick\u2019s \u201cBiological Department\u201d is important. The report had \u201cconcluded that feathers dusted with 10 per cent by weight of cereal rust spores and released\u201d in cluster bombs \u201cat 1300 to 1800 feet above ground level\u201d could \u201cinitiate a cereal rust epidemic.\u201d [Page 6 of <a href=\"https:\/\/s3.documentcloud.org\/documents\/22129490\/feathers-as-carriers-of-bw-agents-sod-detrick.pdf\">full report<\/a>]<\/p>\n<figure class=\"\n              sqs-block-image-figure\n              intrinsic\n            \"\n        ><\/p>\n<p>                  <img data-stretch=\"false\" data-image=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/c1b34528-7592-40a4-b658-6d20b11f7666\/Picture8.png\" data-image-dimensions=\"936x655\" data-image-focal-point=\"0.5,0.5\" alt=\"\" data-load=\"false\" src=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/c1b34528-7592-40a4-b658-6d20b11f7666\/Picture8.png?format=1000w\" width=\"936\" height=\"655\" sizes=\"100vw\" srcset=\"https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/c1b34528-7592-40a4-b658-6d20b11f7666\/Picture8.png?format=100w 100w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/c1b34528-7592-40a4-b658-6d20b11f7666\/Picture8.png?format=300w 300w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/c1b34528-7592-40a4-b658-6d20b11f7666\/Picture8.png?format=500w 500w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/c1b34528-7592-40a4-b658-6d20b11f7666\/Picture8.png?format=750w 750w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/c1b34528-7592-40a4-b658-6d20b11f7666\/Picture8.png?format=1000w 1000w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/c1b34528-7592-40a4-b658-6d20b11f7666\/Picture8.png?format=1500w 1500w, https:\/\/images.squarespace-cdn.com\/content\/v1\/5ddedc989ab6b86728e310e4\/c1b34528-7592-40a4-b658-6d20b11f7666\/Picture8.png?format=2500w 2500w\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" data-loader=\"sqs\"><figcaption class=\"image-caption-wrapper\">\n<p class=\"\"><strong>Picture of feathers used to carry stem rust agents in cluster bombs designed by Ft. Detrick\u2019s Special Operations and Crops division, from <\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/s3.documentcloud.org\/documents\/22129490\/feathers-as-carriers-of-bw-agents-sod-detrick.pdf\"><strong>December 1950 U.S. Army Chemical Corps Biological Dept. report<\/strong><\/a><strong> (pg. 8)<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"\">Other agents, such as anthrax, could have been used in such \u201cfeather bombs.\u201d The use of infected feathers was quickly operationalized by 1951 in what became known as the E-73 bomb. Author and researcher Nicholson Baker discussed this particular episode in his recent book, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.penguinrandomhouse.com\/books\/553978\/baseless-by-nicholson-baker\/\"><em>Baseless: My Search for Secrets in the Ruins of the Freedom of Information Act<\/em><\/a> (pg. 269, 391).<\/p>\n<p class=\"\"><strong> <\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"\"><strong>Cover-up, on top of cover-up, on top of cover-up<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Canadian biological warfare researchers worked in close collaboration with their colleagues at the U.S. Camp Detrick (later Fort Detrick) and UK Porton Down BW research centers. There was a division of labor wherein Canada\u2019s expansive Suffield Experimental Station was used for testing, along with other smaller facilities from Gross \u00cele<strong> <\/strong>to Reed\u2019s lab at Queens University in Kingston.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">At least a month prior to the start of the 1952 U.S. BW bombing campaign over North Korea and northeastern China, Canada\u2019s military was alerted to the strong \u201cprobability\u201d of U.S. operational use of both biological and chemical weapons. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">In the aftermath of revelations concerning the U.S. bombings, including testimony from Canada\u2019s James Endicott, Canada consulted with U.S. government officials about how to respond to the BW charges. They also asked to whether U.S. officials or government documents would be available for a prosecution of Endicott for treason. They learned that obtaining such evidence was not in the cards. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">The treason charges therefore were never made. Instead, it was decided that a propaganda campaign against the Communists\u2019 charges would be undertaken utilizing top scientists, who would speak out against the feasibility of the accusations. In doing so, the Canadian government misrepresented the \u201cindependence\u201d of these scientists, and withheld from public discussion the views of a famous scientist in their employ who was leading the BW entomology work. This scientist, Guilford Reed, found the Communists\u2019 charges of attack by infected insect weapons to be \u201centirely feasible.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">Canada\u2019s External Affairs Department worked with Canadian academics Brittain, Baker and Atwood to craft a statement debunking the BW reports, and their resulting effort was used in international forums with some success. The narrative they presented was used by subsequent historians even into the 21st century, seriously distorting the truth about the BW war, which was and still is being withheld from general public view by both mainstream press and academia. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">This episode was only one of many in the massive program by the United States, Canada, the UK and other Western countries to cover-up one of the greatest war crimes of the 20th century. The continuing misinformation from these governments remains a sore sticking point in relations between the DPRK, China, and U.S. and allied governments. Now is the time to sweep away the lies of the past seventy years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">\n<p class=\"\"><strong>KEY TO DOCUMENT CITATIONS<\/strong>:<\/p>\n<p class=\"\">All documents below are<em> <\/em>held in the <a href=\"https:\/\/atom.library.yorku.ca\/index.php\/stephen-lyon-endicott-fonds\">Stephen Endicott Fonds<\/a> at York University Archives &amp; Special Collections, York University, Toronto. We thank them for the assistance in helping access these previously declassified documents, which were originally obtained by Professor Stephen Endicott. DOC 1, DOC 2, etc. describe a series of documents existing in collection form. Any specific document is described in the text of the article. Neither York University or the Special Collections Archive are responsible for any views stated in this article, such responsibility resting with the author.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\"><strong>DOC 1<\/strong><em> \u2013 2018-016 \/ 005 (10) RG 24: Dept. of National Defense; RG 24F: Defense Research Board; RG 25: Dept. of External Affairs -Important Canadian documents on biological warfare 1948-1952 (Declassified 1997), PART 1 OF 4, Stephen Lyon Endicott fonds, F0667<\/em><strong> <\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"\"><strong>DOC 2<\/strong><em> \u2013 2018-016 \/ 005 (10) RG 24: Dept. of National Defense; RG 24F: Defense Research Board; RG 25: Dept. of External Affairs -Important Canadian documents on biological warfare 1948-1952 (Declassified 1997) PART 2 OF 4, Stephen Lyon Endicott fonds, F0667<\/em><strong> <\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"\"><strong>DOC 3<\/strong><em> \u2013 2018-016 \/ 005 (10) RG 24: Dept. of National Defense; RG 24F: Defense Research Board; RG 25: Dept. of External Affairs &#8211; Important Canadian documents on biological warfare 1948-1952 (Declassified 1997), PART 3 OF 4, Stephen Lyon Endicott fonds, F0667 <\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"\"><strong>DOC 4<\/strong><em> \u2013 2018-016 \/ 005 (10) RG 24: Dept. of National Defense; RG 24F: Defense Research Board; RG 25: Dept. of External Affairs &#8211; Important Canadian documents on biological warfare 1948-1952 (Declassified 1997), PART 4 OF 4, Stephen Lyon Endicott fonds, F0667<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"\"><strong>DOC Z<\/strong><em> \u2013 2018-016 \/ 005 (14) Canadian Scientist G. B. Reed Affirms Feasibility of Chinese Germ Warfare Charges, 1952, Stephen Lyon Endicott fonds, F0667<\/em> <\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<p class=\"\"><strong>Editor\u2019s note: <\/strong>Introducing Operation 135, The Canada Files\u2019 campaign to go from 65 to 200 consistent financial supporters.<strong>&nbsp;<\/strong>The Canada Files is the country&#8217;s only news outlet focused on Canadian foreign policy. We&#8217;ve provided critical investigations &amp; hard-hitting analysis on Canadian foreign policy since 2019, and need your support.<br \/>&nbsp;<br \/>Please consider joining 74 consistent financial supporters, in setting up a monthly or annual donation <a href=\"https:\/\/donorbox.org\/the-canada-files\">through Donorbox<\/a>.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<p class=\"\"><strong>Marthad Shingiro Umucyaba<\/strong> (formerly referred to as Christian Shingiro) is a Rwandan-born naturalized Canadian expat. He is known for his participation in Communist\/anti-imperialist national and international politics and is the radio show host of The Socially Radical Guitarist. <\/p>\n<p class=\"\">He is also a freelance web developer in Hong Kong, China, striving to provide \u201cSocially Radical Web Design at a socially reasonable price\u201d.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<p class=\"\"><span><strong>More Articles<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>              &#8230;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":26973,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/radiofree.asia\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1317789"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/radiofree.asia\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/radiofree.asia\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/radiofree.asia\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/26973"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/radiofree.asia\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1317789"}],"version-history":[{"count":10,"href":"https:\/\/radiofree.asia\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1317789\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1404165,"href":"https:\/\/radiofree.asia\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1317789\/revisions\/1404165"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/radiofree.asia\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1317789"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/radiofree.asia\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=1317789"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/radiofree.asia\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=1317789"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}