In the 1960s, John F. Kennedy or Lyndon Johnson would have pushed back against Federal Reserve rate increases because they saw relatively full employment as an important part of maintaining their political futures. A Democratic president had to be able to deliver something to workers and unions. This resulted in fighting between the Federal Reserve and the presidency. But Reagan, despite some disagreement within his administration and moments of tension with the Fed, supported Volcker’s policy of a recession as the medicine for anti-inflation, and even welcomed it.<\/p>\n
Reagan wanted to break the labor movement in the US. This was famously embodied in his breaking of the air traffic controllers’ strike, where he not only broke the strike, but also imprisoned the leaders of the union and permanently replaced the strikers. This is universally acknowledged as the starting gun a corporate private-sector campaign against unions.<\/p>\n
Reagan and his advisors thought that unemployment was a great complement to this strategy. A union bargaining in the middle of a depression will ask for a lot less than one bargaining in the middle of a tight labor market. That went both ways. Volcker was very clear that he saw Reagan’s intervention in the air traffic controllers’ strike as the most important support that the administration gave to his fight against inflation.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Did he think: “Well, it could be oil, but what am I supposed to do about that? What I can<\/em> do is crush worker power.”<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n Absolutely, and that’s very clear from his testimony before Congress. He said that the oil shock was basically external; the costs would be borne by the US economy somehow. He was not willing to think that these costs would come out of profits, partly because he thought that profits had already been squeezed a lot through the ’70s and the system couldn\u2019t afford to see them squeezed any further.<\/p>\n
Volcker comes off as a villainous figure in this story. There\u2019s good reason for that, but it’s also important to think about the way historical actors understood what they were doing. I think that Volcker sincerely believed there was no alternative to what he was doing. He believed that if you didn’t crush inflation through an induced recession, there would still, at some point, be a recession later.<\/p>\n
He was an old-school guy \u2014 a pre-Keynesian \u2014 in his thinking. He thought that if the good times were too good, you would have to pay the price one way or another. In his own mindset, he wasn’t causing gratuitous pain; he was hastening an adjustment which would have had to happen anyway. It\u2019s important to mention this so that we don’t make these people out to be comic-book villains who took pleasure in what they did.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n You write, “Volcker was genuinely independent from narrowly defined special interests. He was a true believer.” What accounts for his ideological commitments if we can’t crudely reduce it to business interest? Even if Volcker was a true believer, was there still a material basis, however indeterminate, to be found in this broader business-led reaction to the profitability crisis of the ’70s?<\/p>\n
The rise of Japanese and West German competition squeezed the profit margins of American corporations. You write that David Rockefeller was initially offered the job as Fed Chair, and he turned it down and recommended that President Jimmy Carter choose Volcker instead.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n We cannot think of Volcker as a corrupt figure who went to Washington to line the pockets of himself and his friends. But he spent his whole life in a socially specific environment: first, the Chase Bank, which was headed by Rockefeller and was by the 1970s the largest bank in the world, with significant foreign lending, and also the New York Branch of the Federal Reserve.<\/p>\n
The New York Fed is really important, and not just because New York is a big city or because Wall Street is there. The New York Federal Reserve is also the appointed liaison with international capital markets.<\/p>\nIf you actually read about how the central bankers themselves thought about things, it’s a very concrete and almost simple story of class struggle. They were not confused or uncertain on that point.<\/q><\/aside>\nBetween his public service at the New York Fed and his professional background at a big international bank, Volcker brought with him a set of assumptions about what the system required to work, which he would not have seen in the terms of special pleading or narrow particularism. His thinking was more like this: If profits fall too far, or if the international value of the dollar falls too far, that will lead to a generalized economic problem in the United States, which will eventually hurt everyone, even if the people it hurts first and most are places like the Chase Bank.<\/p>\n
A common way to think about ideology is as a way of harmonizing a particular interest \u2014say, David Rockefeller’s interest in the strength of the dollar as the reserve currency \u2014 and a universal interest. For someone like Volcker, those interests would have been more or less similar. When he intervened to bail out international lenders, which he did in a big way during the early 1980s, he saw it as a way to prevent the collapse of the entire economic system, not as a way to help his former employer.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n Dean Baker, Robert Pollin, and Elizabeth Zahrt put it: \u201cBy focusing on inflation as such, rather than the issues of income distribution and profitability, the priorities of a small segment of society, i.e. the wealthy, acquired the status of a nationally-shared concern.\u201d<\/p>\n
The story is usually about the historical inevitability of imposing discipline upon a fundamentally broken New Deal order, however tragic. But this was, upon closer inspection, a class conflict decided in favor of capital. That conflict was mystified at the time by the construction of this hegemonic consensus.<\/p>\n
You write that there were indeed alternatives to austerity that the Fed and the government could have pursued at the time. They didn’t really pursue them because it appeared as though there was no alternative, as the famous neoliberal dictum goes. What were those alternatives? Why weren’t they up for discussion?<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n Hegemony works partly by taking certain possibilities off the table. The best way to think about alternatives is to go back to the simple model of the wage price spiral. The way that the Fed thinks about things is that if wages go up, profits will go down, and businesses will raise prices in order to protect their profit margins.<\/p>\n
If you think about that as a technical description of an economic process, you might ask: Why does the intervention have to be to control wages, rather than to control pricing decisions? You might say that rising wages in the steel industry should be reflected in falling profits for steelmakers, and that the government should try to enforce that by limiting the degree to which steel prices can increase.<\/p>\n
To some people, it sounds like that could never happen in the United States, and that our traditions of free markets and anti-state sentiment would make that impossible. But I think that’s wrong.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n Tell that to John Kenneth Galbraith.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n Absolutely! In 1962, John F. Kennedy called the head of US Steel into his office and yelled at him until he rolled back a steel price increase. It wasn’t a crazy idea. The idea that things like steel or electrical goods \u2014 the commanding heights of the economy \u2014 were so central to the economy that their pricing policy was actually a legitimate object of government intervention was not at all foreign at the time.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n During World War II, the US government used wage and price controls to maintain price stability, which they did to ward off inflation. But they also achieved explosive economic growth, contrary to all neoliberal and National Association of Manufacturers\u2019 warnings to the contrary.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n The World War II economy was almost a totally planned economy. There were also direct controls during the Korean War. Someone in Washington decided on allocations \u2014essentially how many cars Detroit was going to get to build the next year. The same thing happened in the early 1970s, when Nixon imposed the wage and price controls that are sometimes referred to as the nation’s first peacetime wage and price controls.<\/p>\n
That\u2019s a little bit euphemistic when you consider the ongoing US role in Southeast Asia at the time. But it shows that as close to 1979 as 1974, there were wage and price controls. Opinion polling from the time shows that the general public was open to this, as were some of the technocrats of the Carter administration.<\/p>\n
Barry Bosworth, Jimmy Carter’s inflation czar at the time of Volcker\u2019s appointment, actually resigned from government because he thought there should be mandatory controls, and the administration wasn\u2019t willing to go for it. As crazy as it sounds to us now after decades of neoliberalism, the idea that there might be some other way \u2014 a more direct kind of control that might fight inflation \u2014 was not at all foreign at the time.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n Was there something about the fundamental changes to economic conditions in the 1970s that might have made those tools less useful? This was the beginning of the secular wage stagnation that we saw in the 1970s. But is there something about the beginning of secular economic stagnation that begins to change the viability of those tools?<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n The clearest line connecting those conditions to the viability of these policies is a deep crisis of the capitalist system in the 1970s. By the late 1970s, there was widespread concern that profits were not high enough.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n Specifically because of competition at that time from two economies that the United States had actively nurtured after World War II: Japan and West Germany.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n The concentrated industrial core of the US economy that defined US economic power around 1950 was under deep threat by the 1970s. The threat started in industries like textiles, which are low on the value chain. But by the 1970s, it went up through electronics, aircraft, and other high-end things that had been the last preserves of US economic dominance.<\/p>\n
But contemporary observers are also keen to link the profit squeeze to excessive wages. That’s more debatable empirically, but there was certainly a felt need on the part of business. By the late 1970s, these various causes of crisis had led business to organize in a big way.<\/p>\n
Those familiar with books like Kim Phillips-Fein’s Invisible Hands<\/em> or some of Rick Perlstein’s histories will know that the seventies saw a big mobilization of business, unified to an extent it had almost never been unified before, trying to push against consumer protections, against regulations of all kinds, against labor unions, and in some cases for a kind of import protection.<\/p>\nThat mobilization by business, which by 1979 had become very powerful, was a big obstacle to a more centrally-planned or direct-control approach to the problem of inflation.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n You write, \u201cCalls for tight money had always been heard in financial circles, but by the late 1970s, the executives of large industrial corporations had joined the chorus.\u201d<\/p>\n
Why was finance, unlike today, the lead constituency for tight money? Was it because of the conditions of heightened international competition and squeezed profits that led major industrial corporations to join that finance-led coalition?<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n Why was finance, as personified by people like David Rockefeller and Paul Volcker, in the lead? First, financiers and asset owners are historically often among the biggest group of people opposing inflation or worrying about inflation. That’s because inflation tends to erode the value of existing wealth and assets and particularly debt.<\/p>\n
If I’m a bank and I lend money in 1970, and then there’s a lot of inflation over the next decade, by 1980, the real value of the debt I’m owed is eroded. Inflation is good for debtors and bad for creditors.<\/p>\n
But there are other reasons too. By the late 1970s, a huge percentage of profits for the US financial sector came from international activities. The financial sector had responded to falling profitability in the US domestic economy by increasing its activities in countries around the world, including countries in the Third World. They discovered that this was where there was still room for rapid growth.<\/p>\n
It was also, in the 1970s, a time when many of these nations received an economic stimulus from rising commodity prices. A classic example is that US banks were hugely invested in Mexico, which benefited from the high oil prices of the 1970s. For these international bankers with an increasing share of their profits coming from abroad, it was important to keep the dollar as the world’s reserve currency.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n To expand the example beyond Mexico, throughout the Global South, even in non\u2013oil producing nations, petrodollars flowed into banks, and these banks lent out money all over the Global South.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n It was called a recycling process, where these immense superprofits coming from the petro countries went through the US financial system and then back out again. The reason that happened was that the currency of the oil market was the dollar, so these things were already naturally dollarized, and that, more generally, the dollar had become a kind of de facto world money after World War II.<\/p>\n
The US international banking community, as it was sometimes called, had a big interest in making sure that the dollar continued to play this role. But that required that the dollar remain a stable source of value. The banking community thought that inflation at home would undermine the value of the dollar, therefore leading to countries starting to use other currencies instead of the dollar to hold their reserves and to use as the unit of international banking.<\/p>\n
This concern was heightened in the late 1970s by the formation of the European Monetary System, which is an ancestor of the Euro. There were rumors that Saudi Arabia would start to hold reserves in Deutsche marks or in yen, instead of in dollars. There is a financial equivalent to the manufacturing competition story we’ve talked about. It was an open question whether the dollar would remain the unchallenged world money.<\/p>\n
That’s a specific reason, beyond the general reason that bankers don’t like inflation, why people like Rockefeller and Volcker felt the situation to be very urgent in the late ’70s.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n What were the global consequences of the Volcker Shock, particularly for the Global South?<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n In some ways, the effects were most serious abroad. In the United States, unemployment touched 10 percent. It caused a lot of human suffering, especially in certain places like Youngstown, Ohio and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. But this was not as bad as what happened in the Global South.<\/p>\n
The reason why the Volcker Shock was a global problem is that in the 1970s, there had been a huge spree of lending to Third World countries by bankers from the Global North. During the seventies, many Third World countries had become increasingly indebted. In particular, they were indebted to US banks, which meant that their debts were dollar debts, and they’d have to pay these debts back in dollars. The Volcker Shock raised the cost of dollarized debt. It caused a huge increase in interest rates for anyone who owed dollars.<\/p>\n
For Third World countries with huge amounts of debt, this created a problem where meeting the interest payments on these debts became impossible, let alone paying it back. That led to a cascade of sovereign debt crises. Mexico is the famous example, but it happened all over. This created an opening for an early version of the Structural Adjustment Programs, which become very common in the 1990s, in the age of the Washington consensus.<\/p>\n
The Volcker Shock made these debts so hard to pay back that these countries needed a bailout, and the people giving the bailout were able to demand a lot in exchange. One of the things they demanded was an end to these countries\u2019 national industrial development programs.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n The leverage to impose neoliberalism without the need of a military coup.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n Exactly. This was a new way of exercising international power, with dramatic consequences. In the history of Mexico or Brazil or countries all over Africa, these are years of deindustrialization because the conditions of being rescued from their debt involved policies that made domestic investment impossible.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n Why did major corporations join that finance-led coalition against inflation and for tight money?<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n Given that the Federal Reserve was not exactly unwilling to undertake tight monetary policy before Volcker, what was new about this moment? With reference to the presidency, Reagan was on board in a way that Kennedy and Johnson wouldn’t have been. By the same token, industry was on board in a way that it hadn’t been earlier. This was made clear by companies like General Electric, which is not just a big company, but also one that carries out a lot of different kinds of manufacturing. It stood in well for this manufacturing sector in the US economy.<\/p>\nThe Volcker Shock made these debts so hard to pay back that these countries needed a bailout, and the people giving the bailout were able to demand a lot in exchange. One of the things they demanded was an end to these countries\u2019 national industrial development programs.<\/q><\/aside>\nIn the early 1970s, when the Federal Reserve actually did tighten money, there was opposition from the then-CEO of General Electric. Why is that? For General Electric, which is a big business in consumer durables, an induced recession would mean that workers are thrown out of work, or the people who do have their work are worried about their future. If those people started to save their money more, they wouldn\u2019t have money, and as a result, they wouldn\u2019t buy as many refrigerators and dishwashers. At that point, the CEO of General Electric actually showed resistance to tight Fed policy.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n A little bit of inflation means that you want to get the money out the door and make it buy stuff for you.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n Absolutely, and it relates to the question of import competition. Around 1970, General Electric had a lot of confidence in their ability to raise prices. They would say, \u201cFine, there’s inflation, but we can react to a little bit of inflation by raising our prices \u2014 and there aren’t a lot of different companies Americans can turn to for the kinds of things that General Electric makes.\u201d<\/p>\n
By the end of the 1970s, that sense of insulation from competition was gone, so there was less of a feeling that industrialists could just live with inflation by raising prices.<\/p>\n
The industrial corporations themselves also became more international. International banking was expanding in the 1970s, but so was the rise of the multinational corporation \u2014an industrial or a manufacturing company engaged in production all over the world. Sometimes this meant making cars in Argentina to sell to Argentines, but it increasingly meant splitting up the production chain, making mufflers in Northern Mexico that would then be put into cars somewhere else.<\/p>\n
There was phenomenal growth in the multinationalization of the corporation, including the manufacturing corporation, throughout the seventies, which means that by the end of the seventies, a company like GE had a big stake in the value of the dollar because they had investments abroad and money coming in from abroad. This is one reason why the the Volcker Shock had the political support it needed to succeed, and why that support was sustained for a long time, even at great cost to US manufacturers.<\/p>\n
The Volcker Shock and the recession it created were very bad for workers, and especially for unionized workers in these manufacturing industries. They were also not good for manufacturing in the United States, because the millions of workers who were thrown out of work stopped buying things, which is bad for people making things.<\/p>\n
But there was another second-order effect, in which the Volcker Shock made US exports more expensive \u2014 so that companies already struggling to compete with Japan and Germany had an additional challenge because the dollar had become a lot more expensive.<\/p>\n
At first glance, the Volcker Shock was really bad for manufacturers. But there was enough support to carry it through, at least for a few years, because the manufacturing industry had come closer to the position of finance \u2014 wanting to see the value of the dollar preserved, even at the cost of a recession in the United States.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n Is it fair to say that the globalization of US corporations in the 1970s also meant that their interests became financialized?<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n It\u2019s true that the multinationalization of the US corporation means that its interests have become significantly financialized. But I don’t want to overstate the convergence of financial and manufacturing interests, because moments of conflict still existed throughout the 1980s.<\/p>\n
To understand that, we should think about the fact that the Volcker Shock was an experiment. Volcker himself didn\u2019t know how bad things needed to get before he could solve the problem. His writings from the time show that he was a little bit surprised at how bad things got. He was totally fine with it, but he might not have put his money on it.<\/p>\n
He wrote a memo a few years ago, in which he said, \u201cI didn’t foresee what was going to happen, but of course, had I foreseen it, I wouldn’t have done a thing different.\u201d He was very clear on that point. But it was an experiment.<\/p>\n
Manufacturers were close enough to finance to go along with the experiment for a couple of years, but by 1982, things got so bad \u2014 the recession was so deep, scary, and potentially unstable \u2014 that there was a backlash, and Volcker started to back away from the most stringent version of his policy.<\/p>\n
After that, conflict reemerged: US exporters wanted an easing of interest rates, and there was a give-and-take. The distinction between the interests of industrial and financial capital did not go away, but there were the conditions for at least a couple of years of a really unprecedented experiment that was founded on a partial convergence of their interests.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n You write, \u201cThe coalition also encompassed tens of millions of homeowners and shareholders. Always relatively large in the United States, this rentier middle class was subsequently expanded and consolidated by decades of neoliberal policy.\u201d<\/p>\n
Why did homeowners join the reaction against inflation and for tight money in the seventies? As mortgage debtors, wouldn’t they have benefited from inflation, because inflation reduced the value of their debts to the bank?<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n One answer to this question is that Volcker was very careful. He made intentional political choices to shield homeowners from some of the worst effects of his high interest rate policy.<\/p>\n
This is a point made and documented by Sam Gindin and Leo Panitch in their book The Making of Global Capitalism<\/em>. They point out that Volcker made a choice to keep solvent the savings and loans institutions that had been designated housing lenders throughout the New Deal order, even though they would have failed early in the decade if left to their own devices.<\/p>\nVolcker did this as a way to prevent a collapse in the housing credit markets that would have alienated too many middle-class homeowners. He made some specific choices to insulate these people from the worst of it.<\/p>\n
That said, it became hard to get a mortgage at this time. It was bad for homebuilders, and you can imagine that homeowners should have welcomed inflation. Another way to think about why homeowners took Volcker\u2019s side is that, at this point, homes weren\u2019t the only assets people owned. A lot of people owned stocks, and the stock market in the late seventies was really abysmal, to a degree that we kind of forget today.<\/p>\n
Now we know that despite 2008 or the 2020 coronavirus crash, if you put money in an index fund at some point in the twenty-first century, you will now have much more money than you put in initially. Over the 1970s, the big stock market indices like the Dow Jones lost real value. If you had put money in an index fund in 1970, you would have lost money by 1979.<\/p>\n
If we think about this asset-owning middle class not just as homeowners, but as people owning different kinds of assets, we can see how freaked out people would have been by this, and how willing they would have been to sign onto a program that said something had to be done. In most cases, they probably couldn’t tell you all the different manifold effects the Volcker Shock would have had, but there was an atmosphere of crisis.<\/p>\n
This is the same moment of big middle-class tax revolt that is most famously embodied in California in a big revolt against property taxes. It\u2019s an example of something that isn\u2019t linked straightforwardly to interest rate policy, but suggests a mood among homeowners for something new.<\/p>\n
Part of what neoliberal policymakers did was to package these things together which might not have necessarily had a lot to do with each other \u2014 saying that if you’re someone who hates taxes, you should also be upset about unions, and you should also be upset about inflation.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n And hey, this is all related to black people trying to move into your neighborhood.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n Absolutely. The Fed\u2019s decision to control inflation by causing unemployment was a huge assault on black workers. At any given time, then or now, black unemployment has been much higher than white unemployment. We look at the Volcker Shock in a big-picture sense and say, “Unemployment went to 10 percent. That seems bad, but it’s not the end of the world. It’s not like the Great Depression, when a quarter of the workforce was unemployed.”<\/p>\n
But for black male workers under 30, you saw Depression levels of unemployment. If we’re looking at how Volcker was able to build popular support for something that included a manufactured recession, it’s important to remember that a disproportionate amount of the cost was borne by black workers.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n This happened at a time when there was a general conservative reaction against not only the New Deal order, but the Civil Rights Movement.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n It’s hard to separate those things. It’s unclear whether Volcker thought about this at all. This is a story with a lot of unintended consequences \u2014 that goes for the Third World debt crisis, too. In one interview, Volcker said that Africa was not on his radar in 1979 and 1980. It was a blind spot; he didn’t say “Okay, I am the empire. I am going to screw the Third World developmental model.”<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n He didn\u2019t say, “I’m going to crush all of the postcolonial ambitions of national liberation fighters worldwide.” That was more incidental for him.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n The US central bank is like a big elephant that crushes a lot of stuff underfoot, some of which it knows about, some of which it doesn’t. But even if we don’t think there are individual bad intentions, there’s still the way that the central bank is structured. It has good representation of financial interests. It works closely every day with bankers, and to some extent, the Federal Reserve is a kind of private-public partnership in which private banking is well represented. But there are no labor representatives sitting on the Fed committee that makes decisions about interest rates. There is certainly no representative of the African American community.<\/p>\n
The historian David Stein\u2019s work reminds us that the Volcker Shock marked the end to a big, widespread, well-organized movement, centered in the black freedom movement, to guarantee full employment. Two years before the Volcker Shock, Congress passed the Humphrey-Hawkins Full Employment Act, which was supposed to commit the government to restoring full employment. It actually included a mandate for the Fed to target unemployment as well as inflation. This was a social movement victory that led to legislation forcing the Fed to take unemployment into account when it makes policy. That social movement had been led by stalwarts of the black freedom movement.<\/p>\n
The Humphrey-Hawkins Act got its name from its cosponsors, one of whom was Hubert Humphrey and one of whom was Augustus Hawkins, who represented South Central Los Angeles and thus had a front-row view to the crisis of unemployment among urban black Americans. The Volcker Shock was directly or indirectly a response to this movement.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n We often describe the New Right coalition as one that unites big business with the religious right. Was this anti-inflation coalition the material basis for the New Right?<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n The anti-inflationary coalition was the material basis for the New Right. The work of someone like Melinda Cooper in her book Family Values<\/em> reminds us that you shouldn’t make a clean separation between cultural conservatism and the economic base.<\/p>\nTake someone like Milton Friedman, who we know is part of the anti-inflation consensus. His whole thing was about limiting the growth of the monetary supply. He hated unions. But we think of him as a classical liberal or libertarian. He’s a secular Jewish figure \u2014 not Pat Robertson. But even someone like Friedman, when he talks about what’s bad about inflation, will say that a society with inflation is a decadent society where people don’t think about the future.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n Where people aren’t disciplined into making personally responsible decisions.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n This includes sexual morality. Even someone like Friedman, who was the malaise of the seventies, mingled the rise of the price level with a collapse of old-fashioned sexual morality. If that was true for Friedman, it was much more true for an evangelical Christian.<\/p>\nRealizing that the story starts in 1978 or 1979 means that you can’t blame it all on Reagan and the Republicans and you need to seek a deeper explanation.<\/q><\/aside>\nThese things mingle in interesting ways, in which the need for discipline is at once something you’re doing to the labor market, but also something you’re doing to unwed mothers on welfare, and to hippies, and to all these different people who had been able to slip from the bonds of traditional bourgeois morality in the sixties and seventies.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n What about President Jimmy Carter’s ideology? How did the leader of a Democratic Party that had for so long embraced full employment, and until quite recently, come to so readily embrace austerity?<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n There\u2019s a rule that politicians hate recessions, and that they’ll do all kinds of stuff to not have recessions, even to the point of being irresponsible. There’s an idea that they’ll juice the economy before an election. Carter is the staggering exception to that rule.<\/p>\n
He appointed Volcker, knowing full well what he was going to do, and then he stood by Volcker as he induced a recession in an election year! Volcker was appointed in August of 1979. The Shock started in October of 1979. The election was a month later! Only once, in an extremely mild way, did Carter even question anything that Volcker is doing. What was he doing, and why wasn\u2019t he he more sensitive to this?<\/p>\n
One way to understand it is to think about Carter as an individual. He was not connected to the labor-liberal traditions that had sustained someone like Hubert Humphrey, a more classic New Deal Democratic. Carter came out of the New South. As a New South governor, he supported pro-business developmentalism.<\/p>\n
He was antiracist by the standards of Georgia, but not by anyone else’s standards. He got in a lot of trouble in the 1976 Democratic primary by saying that he supported efforts to preserve neighborhoods\u2019 \u201cethnic purity.\u201d This caused a huge amount of flak, and he had to rhetorically support the Humphrey-Hawkins Full Employment Act to contain some of the damage that he caused with black Democrats. But his heart was never in it.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n He was used to appearing as a racial moderate, just by comparison with Lester Maddox.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n Yes \u2014 even though he went to Brazil, visited a town full of the descendants of ex-Confederate soldiers who moved to Brazil, visited the grave of his wife’s ancestor who was there, and by his own account was moved to tears by how much this town had preserved the feel of the old South. He was a racial moderate in American terms, but was not especially concerned about effects on black people.<\/p>\n
He also didn\u2019t have a good relationship with unions, so he wasn\u2019t concerned about its effect on unions. He was an evangelical Christian, so he was not averse to a gospel of virtue through discipline. The familiar version of this is him going on TV wearing a sweater and telling everyone to turn their thermostats down.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n The Crisis of Confidence speech.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n The Crisis of Confidence speech, which sometimes liberals look back fondly on because, hey, at least he was taking the energy crisis seriously, and that’s better than Reagan ripping the solar panels off the roof of the White House. But Carter was also preaching a gospel of personal responsibility and self-denial as the solution to a problem, which was a much more structural matter of political economy. There are a number of personal reasons you might point to that Carter was open to this.<\/p>\n
But he was also under pressure. The dollar crisis started around 1978. In some senses, Carter was a hostage to the international currency traders, who were able to blackmail him into pursuing certain policies by threatening the dollar. There are moments he would try to do something more moderate than the outcome of the Volcker Shock, and then a reaction in the markets would force him to backtrack.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n Where does Carter fit in to the story of neoliberalism as it’s often told, which has Reagan pioneering neoliberalism from the right, and a neoliberalized Democratic Party under Bill Clinton affirming it from the center-left?<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n I am extremely frustrated when I read people like Paul Krugman. Krugman has pushed for fuller employment, more economic expansion, against austerity. But even someone like Krugman, who is now willing to write columns about how great unions are, about how we don’t need really need to worry about inflation \u2014 a really dovish figure like Krugman always starts the story with Reagan.<\/p>\n
If you read Krugman\u2019s New York Times<\/em> column on labor unions, why they’re good and why it was bad they got rid of them, Krugman cites a statistic on labor density from 1980 to suggest that as late as 1980, everything was okay. What happened is that Reagan comes in, is inaugurated in 1981, does PATCO, and caused the crisis.<\/p>\nA narrative like that leaves Krugman no room for thinking about a) the Democratic Party and figures like Carter, and b) the role of central bankers like Volcker, who Krugman and everyone else in his profession still admire. Realizing that the story starts in 1978 or 1979 means that you can’t blame it all on Reagan and the Republicans and you need to seek a deeper explanation. You need an explanation that is political-economic.<\/p>\n
When Krugman tries to answer the question of what went wrong, he leans a lot on the racism of Reagan’s political base, about which there can be no question. But whatever racism there was in American society didn’t appear whole cloth in 1981 \u2014 it was also reflected in the abandonment of full employment policy. Abandonment of full employment happened in 1978 or 1979, and there’s a series of things there that you can point to, of which Volcker’s appointment is just one.<\/p>\n
It’s important not just in the way that it’s important to blame the Democrats, but because in order to get the history right and understand why it happened, we need to understand the structural causes that made this a bipartisan policy \u2014 not a coup, and not the imposition of the Republican Party.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n What role did the neoliberal theory of monetarism and the so-called natural rate of unemployment, developed by Milton Friedman, play in creating the new common sense about how government and the Fed should deal with inflation? What is monetarism, and what is the so-called natural rate of unemployment?<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n Monetarism is a way of thinking about the economy, and particularly about monetary policy, which is what the Fed does. The key figure here is Milton Friedman, who, over the course of the postwar decades in the US, moved from an academically respected but marginal figure to one whose ideas were very mainstream in the academy, among business people, and among regular people like you and me, who would have watched his PBS documentary and discover the evils of the minimum wage.<\/p>\n
The key idea of monetarism is that inflation is just a problem of the money supply. There are many complicated, intertangled, real-world causes of inflation. There could be an energy crisis, a collective bargaining agreement, or a political standoff. Friedman’s theory had the virtue of saying that none of that really matters \u2014 what matters is just the money supply, and if there’s inflation, it means that the money supply is growing too fast, and the Fed should limit the growth of the money supply.<\/p>\n
Its lesson is beautifully simple, and it starts from the basic definition of inflation \u2014 that it’s too much money chasing too few goods. The slope that Friedman comes up with to sell this monetarist idea is that inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon. He emphasized the central bank as the site of anti-inflationary policy, as opposed to any other kind of government intervention.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n This is fascinating, given that neoliberals believe that the market needs to be protected from the state, but in the case of monetarism, they believe that the state is pulling the strings.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n This separates Friedman from the more intense libertarians. If you probe any libertarian thinker far enough, you’ll find things they think the state should be doing. But this, in particular, was a fault line between Friedman and other libertarians; he really did see a role for the Federal Reserve as a planner.<\/p>\n
It doesn’t seem that way at first, but the idea that the whole level of economic activity and things like inflation and output should be determined by the Federal Reserve setting the monetary supply in the right way is a thin version of economic planning. It would bring Friedman into conflict with some more libertarian economists.<\/p>\n
In his analysis of the Great Depression, Friedman thinks that the Depression was caused by the Federal Reserve not expanding the monetary supply enough. He is honest enough to admit that this goes both ways, and that in some cases, you should have monetary expansion, which is really a kind of stimulus. Friedman, for all his libertarian activism, is also someone who accepts a big role for the government and a big role in controlling the money supply.<\/p>\n
Monetarism provides Volcker with his stated rationale for the Volcker Shock. Volcker was appointed in August of 1979, but the Volcker Shock started in October of 1979, and it started with Volcker\u2019s announcement following a meeting of the Fed’s Open Market Committee that he would target the growth of the money supply, instead of targeting interest rates.<\/p>\n
Before, you could imagine that the Federal Reserve made policy by saying, \u201cInterest rates are at 5 percent, but there’s too much inflation, so we’ll try to get them up towards 7 percent.\u201d That would be one way of tightening money \u2014 focusing on interest rates as the instrument of that policy.<\/p>\nIf we want an alternative to raising interest rates in response to too much wage growth, we need to start thinking about making price and profit the object of policy.<\/q><\/aside>\nVolcker announced that they wouldn\u2019t target the interest rate anymore. They would target the growth of the money supply. \u201cThis quarter, the money supply grew by 20 percent, but there’s inflation, so we’re going to make sure it grows next quarter by no more than 10 percent.\u201d That’s a different kind of monetary tightening, focused on the growth of the money supply as the instrument of policy.<\/p>\n
That is essentially what a monetarist, like Friedman, would prescribe. In his stated rationale, Volcker embraces monetarism; this is a huge victory for Friedman’s school of thought. What Volcker actually thought he was doing is a good deal more complicated. He was never a doctrinaire monetarist. Volcker was, to his credit, skeptical of all kinds of simplistic schools of economic thought. He hated simplistic, fine-tuning Keynesianism. He was also never a monetarist. He was a practical central banker, not a theoretician. In fact, he confirmed later in interviews that he wasn’t moved to induce the Volcker Shock because he had suddenly become a convert to the idea of monetarism.<\/p>\n
So why did he do it? The answer is actually interesting. He said that monetarism provided him with a political cover.<\/p>\n
Volcker replaced the management of interest rates with the management of the money supply. He did this because he knew that if the Fed said it was targeting interest rates, and then interest rates went to the highest point they’d ever been in history, people would blame the Fed. They’d say, \u201cAll of a sudden, I’m trying to borrow money to buy a car, and they’re telling me I’m going to have to pay 25 percent interest on this.\u201d<\/p>\n
He knew that by focusing on limiting the money supply, which would inevitably have the effect of raising interest rates, he would put a buffer in between the decisions that he and the Fed made, and the consequences on the market. They’d say, \u201cAll we’re doing is limiting the growth of the money supply. It’s the market that’s pushing interest rates up.\u201d This is an example of how Volcker was a canny political actor, not just a technocratic central banker.<\/p>\n
The final confirmation of this instrumental or practical monetarism is that in 1982, the recession was getting too deep. It had a number of bad effects, including triggering Third World debt defaults like in Mexico \u2014\u00a0which posed huge problems for the international banks, precisely Volcker’s big constituency. His noble experiment in killing inflation actually started to conflict with the health of the US financial system at a big level.<\/p>\n
What did he do? He backed off from the monetarism. He stopped the money supply targeting. He eased up a little bit. From then on, he didn\u2019t present his choices in a monetarist framework.<\/p>\n
Commentary from the time shows that Friedman and his followers were upset about this. They saw, correctly, that Volcker abandoned monetarism, which they said was a disaster that would bring back inflation. But it didn\u2019t \u2014 which confirms both that Volcker was not really a dyed-in-the-wool monetarist, and that the monetarists were not totally right about the causes of the inflation, because Volcker’s abandonment of this did not lead to the return of inflation.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n And the so-called natural rate of employment. This is a Friedmanite innovation that becomes more normalized in mainstream than monetarism.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n It’s also an idea associated with Friedman, but as you say, it has more staying power. The idea is that the natural rate of unemployment answers the question of what full employment really means.<\/p>\n
When we say full employment, we almost never mean zero percent unemployment. At different points, governments have had different targets. Even in the heroic days of American Keynesianism, the Lyndon Johnson White House was aiming for something like 4 percent or maybe, at the limit, 3 percent. But unemployment never really goes to zero.<\/p>\n
The natural rate of unemployment is an intervention in this debate over the actual target for employment. It shows that there’s a level of unemployment in the economy below which you will cause inflation to increase. The natural rate of unemployment is related to the NAIRU \u2014 the Non Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment.<\/p>\n
These ideas are different in some minor respects, but the idea is the same: there’s a level of unemployment below which the economy cannot go without suffering damage. One form that damage will take is inflation.<\/p>\n
Economists try to estimate the natural rate of unemployment for the economy and use that estimate in order to guide policy. If the natural rate of unemployment is 7 percent, then the Fed will start to tighten policy if they see unemployment approaching 7 percent, because they know that if you go to 6.5, you’ll start to pay for it in some way, probably inflation. This idea has a long life that lasts after the 1980s, after Volcker, and long after people have stopped taking strict monetarist ideas seriously.<\/p>\n
In the 1990s, Janet Yellen, who is now Secretary of the Treasury and was formerly Jerome Powell’s predecessor as head of the Federal Reserve, was just a member of the Fed Open Market Committee. She helped to make interest rate policy under Alan Greenspan, who was then the head. In the mid-’90s, as unemployment approached 5 percent, Yellen personally visited Greenspan in his office and said that they needed to raise rates because the economy was headed for 5 percent, and that’s what she thought the natural rate was. Yellen was still thinking this in the nineties.<\/p>\n
She’s still thinking it in the transcripts, if you look at 2015. In 2015, they were dealing with the slow recovery from the 2008 recession, which dragged on and on. The economy had technically expanded \u2014 the recession is over \u2014 but it seemed slow. So the Federal Reserve began to experiment with a more expansionary position on monetary policy. But at least as late as 2015, they still thought that the natural rate of unemployment had changed, not that the doctrine needed to be given up altogether.<\/p>\n
They would say, \u201cPerhaps we haven’t been expansionary enough. We thought the natural rate was 6 percent, but it’s really 5 percent, so we should take a more expansionary position.\u201d They weren’t saying, \u201cThis whole idea is bogus.\u201d They’ve moved much closer to that now; Yellen and Powell’s statements since about 2016 show that they’ve come much closer to rejecting the idea, but the idea guided policy at least through the second Obama administration.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n A 1999 article from the economist Robert Pollin argues that Friedman’s idea of the natural rate of unemployment, upon closer inspection, conceals a Marxist or Kaleckian (Polish economist Mikal Kalecki<\/a>) \u2014 idea.<\/p>\nPollin writes, \u201cAccording to Friedman, what he terms the natural rate of unemployment is really a social phenomenon measuring the bargaining strength of working people as indicated through their ability to organize effective unions and establish a livable minimum wage.\u201d<\/p>\n
How does neoliberal monetarism, according to Pollin, just restate in mystified form the Marxist idea of the reserve army of the unemployed? What does that reveal about the mystified premises of neoliberalism?<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n Let’s start with the idea of what the natural rate of unemployment is. It’s a point of unemployment below which there will start to be pressure on prices; there will start to be inflation.<\/p>\n
Why is it that lower unemployment will lead prices to rise? The answer is that lower unemployment increases workers’ bargaining power. Workers’ bargaining power means that wages will rise, and a rise in wages at a certain point will lead to a rise in prices. There’s a chain running from unemployment which is \u201ctoo low\u201d to an increase in workers’ bargaining power, as well as to inflation, which is a problem. So you decide that unemployment has to remain at a certain level so that workers don’t demand too much, and you prevent inflation.<\/p>\n
Put that way, it sounds like a conspiracy. But this is all over the Federal Reserve transcripts. I quote some of them in the piece I wrote for Phenomenal World,<\/em> but you could find a million more of them if you wanted. There’s a direct sense that this is how things work. One famous example is that in the nineties, Alan Greenspan was testing the limits too of how far unemployment could go. He was willing to think that maybe the natural rate had changed. And Greenspan posed the question: what has changed that allows us to have lower unemployment without the inflation that we saw in the seventies?<\/p>\nHis answer is that workers are discouraged and insecure. He quotes studies that ask workers, \u201cAre you worried about losing your job? Do you feel confident asking for more in your job?\u201d He quotes these studies as evidence of worker insecurity and says very clearly that worker insecurity is the reason why we don’t have to worry about inflation quite as much as we used to.<\/p>\n
And it’s not just people like Greenspan who believe this. A piece from the Economic Policy Institute (EPI), a solidly left-wing-of-the-Democratic-Party think tank, says very frankly that inflation is caused by workers having too much power. There’s a widespread idea from across the mainstream political perspective that workers’ bargaining power becomes a problem at a certain point.<\/p>\n
If you’re a hardcore Marxist, you might say \u2014 and this gets back to Pollin’s idea of a convergence between Friedmanite and Marxist thinking \u2014 that the consensus is right. Actually, at a certain point, workers’ bargaining power is a problem for the system. And if you’re far enough to the left, your response to that is that the system needs to give way. But if you don’t take that perspective, you say that the workers’ bargaining power needs to give way.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n \n
Daniel Denvir<\/dt>\n \n Pollin writes, \u201cEconomists have long studied how workers’ wage demands cause inflation as unemployment falls. However, it is never the case that such demands directly cause inflation. This is true by definition, since inflation refers to a general rise in product prices. Workers, by definition, do not have the power to raise product prices. Inflation happens as unemployment is falling, when business owners respond to workers’ increasingly successful wage demands by raising product prices so they can maintain profitability by passing on their increasing costs.\u201d<\/p>\n
But, as you suggested, in terms of how class power plays out, businesses pass on wage increases as higher prices to maintain their profitability. In cases where inflation is<\/em> wage-related \u2014 even though it’s driven by capitalists’ profit-protecting response to wage increases, not directly by wage increases \u2014 what should the Left’s position be? Should our position be that inflation is fine, or that inflation is sometimes indeed a problem, so we should demand that the government use some sort of other tool to manage it?<\/p>\nIn other words, do some left policies, under capitalist conditions, indeed risk sparking inflation or even hyperinflation?<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n \n
Tim Barker<\/dt>\n \n That’s the million-dollar question, and we really do need an answer. In the short run, I don’t see a lot of evidence of really serious inflationary pressures; most observers don’t.<\/p>\n
We should stipulate that it’s not an immediate problem. But if we get fuller employment, we can expect that at some point, workers’ demands will cut into profits. If we don’t get that, we’re not getting what we want. We can say that if we ever get the policies we’re fighting for, there will be some pressure on profits, which are, by historical standards, as a share of income, very high. We should be eating into those.<\/p>\n
If that happens, the businesses that can raise prices will do so, and then we will be back in this situation. I can’t tell you whether it will happen in five years or ten years \u2014 <\/strong>and then what do we do?<\/p>\nA lot of people on the center-left still say that we’re not there yet, but then when we do get there, the solution is simply to raise interest rates the way we’ve always done. So, clearly, people who are to the left of the EPI need a better answer for that. What is the answer? Making price and profit the object of public policy.<\/p>\n
That sounds foreign to us now, but it wasn’t for a long time. Look at the World War II example, which is the example that people on the center-left are now using to show how we can have an expansionist economy that helps everyone. In the New York Times<\/em> op-ed section, JW Mason and Mike Konczal laid out a strong case for the best version of this expansionist turn. Their example is the World War II economy, during which incomes rose and the economy expanded even as the federal deficit reached record levels, proved all these naysayers wrong.<\/p>\nBut if you go back and ask what made the World War II expansion possible, there was a centrally planned economy in which there was an excess profit tax, controls on prices, controls on wages. As leftists, we would question some elements of that policy. There was a no-strike policy that the CIO enforced against workers.<\/p>\n
If we want an alternative to raising interest rates in response to too much wage growth, we need to start thinking about making price and profit the object of policy.<\/p>\n
From 1945 to 1946, there was a big UAW strike against General Motors. The demand the UAW made of General Motors was a sizable increase in wages to the auto workers without raising prices. They said, \u201cWe want the raise, but we don’t want you to pass it on in an inflationary spiral.\u201d GM said, \u201cWe can’t do this. If we’re going to pay you more, our profits are going to go down and we’ll have to raise prices.\u201d<\/p>\n
The UAW\u2019s Walter Reuther said, \u201cOpen your books. Show us your profits, so we can actually see that this wage increase would be such a problem for you.\u201d Of course, GM refused to do that. They took out full-page ads in newspapers around the country, saying that Reuther’s demand was a step on the way to socialism.<\/p>\n